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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



EVERETT'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE 



By 

MARSHALL EVERETT 

The Great Descriptive Writer and Historian 




A Complete Library of Universal Knowledge 

Condensed into One Volume 
The Culmination of Centuries of Human Efforts 



Showing the Newest and Most Wonderful Inventions 

and 
The World's Great Progress in Science and Commerce 



The Great Industries of the World Photographed and Explained 
Showing the Wonderful Mechanical Methods of this Century 



Including a Complete Index 
and 

A Valuable List of Review Questions for Home Study 



Superbly Illustrated with a Vast Number of Engravings 

Made from Photographs. Explaining and Beautifying the Text. 



Copyright igoj by HENRY NEIL 



THE BIBLE HOUSE 

323 DEARBORN ST. CHICAGO, ILL. 



^V5 



u\ 






JUL 



20 ly^^ 






PREFACE 



OF all the books ever made I believe this one contains by far the greatest 
amount of Practical Knowledge ever condensed into one volume. No 
busy man, woman or child can look at a single page without finding 
something that will both interest and instruct. Here are the Wonderful Inven- 
tions and Strange Devices of Mankind Explained and Photographed so that any 
one will understand at a glance. No field of modern research has been left 
untouched, no arena of activity has been neglected, no portion of the globe has 
been overlooked or forgotten when gathering facts for this, the most concise and 
yet comprehensive work ever offered to the public. 

It sets before the reader in a nutshell all the important and wonderful inven- 
tions of all people and all the great discoveries of all nations. In the shop, on 
the railroad, in the store, on the farm, in the factory, in the home, in the school, 
and amid the whirl of mighty machinery, questions constantly confront us, all of 
which are answered in this volume and the answers can readily be found by the 
complete index. 

I have never seen such a wealth of useful pictures in one volume before — 
the publishers have certainly gone to an unusual large expense in making illus- 
trations. 

The publishers of this magnificent volume have spared no expense to present 
to the intelhgent reading public a comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date ency- 
clopaedia of the latest inventions and improvements in the scientific and mechani- 
cal world ; the work is primarily intended for busy people who desire facts, yet 
who wish to be spared the labor of long and unsatisfactory researches through 
libraries, museums, and histories. 

In the space allotted to science in this delightful book are described the latest 
marvels : liquid air, the wireless telegraph, the new uses of the X Ray, the ad- 
vance in experiments toward the perfect air ship, telegraphing pictures, and many 
other wonderful feats never before dreamed of. 

There are a large number of very interesting accounts of inventions along 
the mechanical line, many partake of the nature of the scientific. Here the 
reader learns that the dreams of Jules Verne have come true, and that man may 
now safely travel the bottom of the sea. Besides submarine boats, there are here 
treated such subjects as battleships and modern war engines, moving pictures, 
great engineering feats, automobiles, bridges, canals, monster printing presses, 
type-setting machines, iron and steel mills and foundries and stereotyping pro- 
cesses. 

I believe this volume will be of great practical benefit to all who use it. 

MARSHALI. EVERKTT, 



INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY 

AN EASV METHOD OF "POSTING" ON ANV GIVEN SUBJECT 



THE following series of questions pertaining to the subjects treated in this 
volume is intended as a key to help unlock the great fund of information 
stored within its pages and to impress that information upon the mind. The 
list contains inquiries which point toward every quarter of human research and 
human achievement. It covers the universe, and touches all things which are wont 
to attract the attention and engross the minds of readers and thinkers. 

As we stated in the Introduction, the book itself is a compendium of knowl- 
edge prepared for the twentieth-century man or woman who is too busy to wade 
through dense volumes, in order to obtain facts and figures that are here pre- 
sented in a nutshell. 

In daily business and social intercourse, all persons are at times confronted 
by problems requiring immediate solution. To aid in readily solving them, these 
questions are formulated and the responses indicated. They will be found to meet 
the constantly recurring needs of men and women in every vocation, serving as a 
medium of ready reference, not only to the student and the teacher, but to the 
mechanic, the farmer, the artist, the railroader, the clerk, the housekeeper, the 
sportsman, the speculator, the clergyman, the inventor, and all seekers for useful 
knowledge. 

The asking and answering of these questions will be a benefit to all members 
around the evening fireside, and prove a welcome and unique entertainment at 
social gatherings, where knowledge as well as pleasure is the object in view. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

AIRSHIPS. 

Questions Ansiccrs Questions Ans'a'crs 

Page Page 

Of what is the aeroplane made? 45 Who made a trip in an airship across the 

How long did the trip in the flying ma- English Channel ? lOO 

chine take? 45 Why was the airship of great use to the 

Who is the great inventor of the airship ? . 86 Japanese ? ,.167 

Can persons be made comfortable in the What country is ahead in aerial naviga- 

airship ? 86 tion ? 282 

xvii. 



XVlll 



INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. 



AUTOMOBILES. 



Questions Answers 

Page 
Where is the only motor street sprinkler 

in use ? 38 

Will the motor sprinkler come into practi- 
cal use ? 38 

What is the automatic journey recorder ?.. 130 
In what country do horses ride in autos?..i45 
What is taking the place of pneumatic 

tires ? 189 

How is the spring wheel constructed? 189 

Where is there an automobile school for 



Questions Answers 

Page 

horses ? 255 

Who owns the first auto' built in the United 

States ? 256 

How can an automobilist secure a light 

without matches ? 267 

Where did an auto replace a mule? 286 

Where was an auto used for a plow? 289 

How are are lamps trimmed by autos? 294 

Where is there a windmill automobile?. .. .299 
Where is there a gearless automobile?. .. .306 



BATTLESHIPS. 

How could a battleship be converted into How can a boat be protected against tor- 

a hotel? 84 pedo attacks? 214 

What was the greatest naval battle of mod- How are wounded men transported on Ger- 

ern times ? 120 man vessels ? 225 

What are the fear of ships of underwater What is the new ship for training Ameri- 

attacks? 213 canjackies? .■ 233 



BOATS. 



How are boats built by paper patterns?. . . .103 

How are the ribs of a boat bent ? 103 

How can the wood of a boat be made 

dark? .103 

How long is the Vraad ? i33 

Do the crew of the Vraad ever come on 

deck? 133 

Of what is the mast on the Vraad made?. .133 
How can sails be hoisted from the deck?. .168 
Is yachting in ice boats becoming popular?. 169 
Of what is the unsinkable life boat made?. .205 
Is it right for the United States to make 



submarines and sell them to foreign na- 
tions ? 220 

Where is there a motor house boat? 224 

How is the motor house boat run? 224 

Where is the largest fire boat ever built in 

England ? 226 

How large should motor boats be for ocean 

races ? 227 

Where is there a floating church? 305 

Has motor boating become popular? 317 

Are the English yachting festivals gay?. . . .^27 
How can a house boat be built? 330 



BRIDGES. 



Where is the highest bridge in the world 

being built ? 46 

What is the safety motor cradle which 

hangs from this bridge ? • 46 

How were the 'men who were to work on 

the bridge sent across the gorge? 47 

How much did the thousand foot long 

bridge cost ? 53 



How was the draw bridge of the Bastile 

discovered ? 96 

Where is there a remarkable rolling 

bridge ? 159 

Where is the only aerial ferry in America?. 204 
What is the signal for broken bridges?. . .217 
What are the difficulties of bridge building 

in the Philippines ? 234 

What was the cost of the St. Paul bridge?. 321 



INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HLOME STUDY. 



XIX 



CONSTRUCTION. 



Questions Answers 

Page 
Where is a warehouse being built of con- 
crete ? 45 

What is taking the place of wooden posts?. 52 

What are iron band pavements ? 64 

Where is there to be a new dam built ? 70 

In whose control will the new dam be ? . . . . 70 

How are concrete blocks tested ? 149 

Does concrete preserve metals from rust?. 153 
What city is going to erect a mausoleum 
like that of Westminster ? 154 



Questions Anszvers 

Page 
Can concrete be used for street paving?.. 156 
Where is the largest dam in the world?.. 159 
Where is there a light house made of beton 

and steel ? 253 

What are some of the signs used by foreign 

draftsmen? 288 

How are deep water excavations possible?. 304 
What is the present appearance of the fa- 
mous Culebra cut ? 314 

What became of the abandoned derricks 
on the Panama canal ? 316 



DISCOVERIES. 



Can gold be extracted from sea water?. . . .128 
What is second in hardness to a diamond?. 133 
Did the Romans know how to make wire 



rope? 238 

How old is the wire rope found in the 
ruins of Pompeii? 238 



DISINFECTANTS. 



How long does it take the disinfecting ma- 
chine to disinfect everything? 52 

Where is the disinfecting machine used?. . . 52 
What is now used for disinfecting in a hos- 
pital? 91 



What is used for killing insects on fruit 
trees in California ? i^ 

What is the cost for an outfit for killing 
insects ? if 



ELECTRICITY. 



How do electric meters work? 94 

Where is there an electric bakery? 151 

How is the electric bakery worked? 151 

What new method is now used to protect 

electricians ? 162 

How is an electric heater made ? 163 

What is now replacing the old horse-drawn 

fire engines, in England ? 166 

Of what use is the bullet-proof motor?. . . .179 



Where is the bullet-proof motor used? 179 

Is California noted for its electrical engi- 
neering? 184 

Are electric fans of any use during 

winter ? 198 

What is of great importance in a fort?... 270 
Where was there a brilliant electrical dis- 
play? 281 

How could weeds be taken from a ship's 
bottom by electricity ? 303 



EXPLOSIVES. 

What is the new use for calcium carbide?. 39 How can wood be set on fire by steam?.. 157 

How is calcium carbide used as an ex- ^j^^^ j^ ^^^^ „^^^ explosive? 219 

plosive ? 40 

^r 1 . • ,1 J 1 -J Q What substance of Mitchellite was found 
Oi what IS the new gunpowder van made.'^. 02 

How are bombs sent to royalty? 97 • to do the work of three pounds of dyna- 

Are the bomb experts well paid? 97 mite? 219 



XX INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

Questions Answers Questions Ansivers 

Page Page 

What was Peter Nissen's great experi- When did he make his last and ill-fated 

ment ? 203 trip ? 203 

What great feat did Nissen successfully What was the size and general appearance 

perform ? 203 of the Foolkiller ? 203 

GAS ENGINES. 



How is the uiack smoke utilized in Bel- 
gium ? 43 

From what can fluid gas be made? 86 

How many types of gas meters are in use?. 94 

How do gas meters work ? 94 

Where is the largest gas engine power plant 



How many gasoline engines are used on a 
well boring machine ? 190 

How many cubic feet of gas does the larg- 
est plant in the world produce in 20 
hours ? 191 

What is a good substitute for gasoline?. . .229 



in the world? 184 How is city water run by alcohol motor?. .321 



H'IGH PLACES. 

Where is the highest bridge in the world burns out ? 126 

being built? 46 How is a very high steeple climbed ? 182 

Where is there a chimney 125 feet high?. . . 70 Where is the only aerial ferry in America ?.204 
What is done in Wales when a chimney 



INDUSTRIES. 



What is the new process for making bricks 

in England ? 38 

Copper can be made hard enough for what 

use? 71 

How is cotton underwear now made ? . . . . 74 
Where is the potter's wheel still used for 

shaping porcelain ? 78 

What is the new way of drying tea? 118 

How long does it take to pack a no lb. 

chest of tea ? 119 

In any other country is the fish culture as 

great as in the United States? 123 

How is salmon hatched? 124 

How is fish sent out on boats ? 125 



What are the best months for cutting ice?. 136 
Do ice houses with ice in them ever bum?. 137 

How are glass bath tubs made ? 183 

What is the automatic sculptor? 224 

How are mirrors made? zzy 

Where is the most quicksilver produced?. .228 

What is a bucket tramway? 249 

What do many fishermen use for polishing 

their lines ? 254 

How is corn cob meal made ? 269 

What is the price of crude rubber? 294 

How do the Mexicans tell where there is 

water? 318 

Of what are rain-proof hats made? 2,22 



INVENTIONS. 



Who was the man who invented the ma- 
chine so a person can sign a check a 
thousand miles away? 63 



How is the long-distance writing machine 

operated ? 64 

What is the stenophile ? 85 



INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. xxi 

INVENTIONS.— Continued. 



Questions Ansivers 

Page 
What will soon be the companion of the 

typewriter ? 85 

How is the machine for short-hand used ? . 85 

What is the Tantalum lamp? 130 

Who is the designer of the machine that 
predicts the tides ? 209 



Questions Ansivcrs 

Page 
Of what is the new automatic fire alarm 

made ? 23 1 

Where is there a coaster clock? 287 

Who is the inventor of the seeing wire?.. 293 
Where is there a ten-hour clock? 318 



LUMBERING. 



When was the first saw mill erected in this 
country ? 33 

Of what did the machinery in the first saw 
mill consist ? 33 

About how many feet of open cut timber 
does California, Washington and Oregon 
contain ? 34 



On what woods is the fir most valuable?.. 34 

Who says what trees are to be cut? 34 

Is the work of lumbering carried on with 

factory-like system ? 35 

How is the lumber drawn to the yarding 

ground ? 35 



MACHINERY. 



What is the only kind of machinery said 

to be safe in mining ? 53 

Where is the best machine for manufactur- 
ing pins ? 58 

Where is the largest pin factory in the 

world ? 58 

Where were fine files formerly made ? 60 

Where are fine files made now ? 60 

In how many sections is the face of each 

die? 61 

Why are some files made by hand? 61 

When is the makers' name stamped on the 

file? 62 

What is used to lift piles of pig-iron?... 65 
Has any human hand touched the pile of 

pig-iron ? 65 

What is the motive power for hoisting the 

pile? 65 

How is gravel elevated and screened?.... 86 
How is Portland cement manufactured?.. 87 
What is done at the chalk grinding house?. 88 
From the chalk house where does the ce- 
ment go ? 89 

What is the electric coal shovel ?. 113 

On what river is the Shawinigan power 



house ? 134 

What was recently placed in the power 

house at Shawinigan Falls, Canada? 134 

Has Japan its own foundries ? 144 

How are emery wheels made ? 160 

How is crude oil transmitted by pipe ? . . . . 167 
What are * the portable water distilling 

plants? 207 

What is the clam shell bucket? 210 

How many tons will the clam shell bucket 

unload at a single operation? 210 

How can water power be multiplied? 232 

How are sunken treasures to be raised?.. 237 
From what is the word telpherage de- 
rived ? 243 

Of what does the telpher line consist ?... .243 

What is the Porcupine ? 278 

How is the Porcupine used ? 278 

Who made the machine to do embossing?. .284 

What is the automatic meal scoop? 292 

What is a hydraulic lift lock? 295 

How many men does the operation of the 

hydraulic lift lock require? 297 

What was the cost of the hydraulic lift 

lock ? 297 



xxii ~ INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. 

MEDICINE AND SURGERY. 

Questions Answers Questions Answers 

Page Page 
What was recently invented for the injured tion ? 193 

in the navy? 49 Why is it so many men die while inside a 

What surgeon has served as the President's caisson? 252 

physician ? 51 What is the new invention which is most 

Why are dentists now put on ocean liners?. 55 useful to surgeons? 257 

For what is compressed air used in den- What city is to have the greatest hospital 

tistry? 59 in the world? 297 

How can a person be revived from suffoca- 



MINING. 

What is the new way of mining coal?.... 69 What is the great difficulty in deep min- 

How can the range of a mountain be found ing? 216 

by one man ? 100 How is coal and ore handled at important 

Are mining experts in great demand?. .. .216 lake ports? 261 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



How can sand be blown out of wells?.... 48 
What is the new way of watering cut flow- 
ers and vegetables in a greenhouse?.... 55 

How is water pumped in Mexico? 57 

Where are Japanese jinrickshas built?.... 70 

How can a rusty screw be loosened ? 86 

How can putty be softened ? 86 

Why are oak boxes placed on some tombs 

in Paris ? 92 

How is Dakota irrigated ? 93 

How can a room be ventilated during a 

storm ? 93 

What is the art of nail driving? . .106 

What is the weight of the earth? 116 

What was the oil combat in Kansas? 120 

What is the largest diamond in the world?. 145 
How can a refrigerator be kept cool with- 
out ice ? 148 

How are sewers cleaned? 150 

What is a simple tempering recipe? 179 

Where is the smallest restaurant in the 

world? 182 

How long and how wide is the smallest 

restaurant ? 182 

How is a snare drum tightened? 187 

How can lime be removed in water jacket?. 190 
What is the latest way of opening and clos- 



ing windows ? 195 

What is a good shellac varnish? 195 

How can iron and steel be protected from 

corrosion ? 195 , 

How can a good black board paint be 

made ? 196 

How are ostrichs selected for the market?. 197 

How can paper be straightened? 225 

How were log water mains made? 232 

Who is the only woman sword fisher? 240 

How can bank vaults be opened in an 

emergency ? 248 

How can a child's desk be made at home?. .254 
What is the new brush for washing win- 
dows ? 260 

Where are a great many of England's 

horse shoes made ? 276 

How can bicycle tires be kept from creep- 
ing? 289 

Where is there a portable steel cage for 

convicts ? 307 

How much water is wasted in Chicago an- 
nually? 319 

What is the amount of soda water Ameri- 
cans drink? t,2t, 

What kind of target practice is held in 

Germany? 331 

Who lived in the water for fifteen days?.. 332 



INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS EOR HOME STUDY. xxiii 

PHOTOGRAPHY. 



Questions Anst^<crs 

Page 
How can pictures of microbes be taken ? . . 44 
How can a photograph be reproduced on a 

watch case ? yz 

How are spirit portraits painted? 83 

How are photographs made in color ? . . . . 92 
What is a good paste for mounting photos?. 108 

What is a gun earner a ? iiS 

How are photographs taken from a captive 

balloon ? 185 



Oiiesfious Answers 

Page 
How are instantaneous photographs taken?. 197 
How can colored photographs of leaves be 

taken? 218 

How are cracked negatives mended? 21S 

How are photographs of the interior of the 

human eye taken ? 242 

How can a camera tripod be made? 277 

How are titles marked on negatives?. .. .280 



PHONOGRAPHS. 

What is the Auxetophone? 83 How did an Irishman sing over his own 

How is the Auxetophone used ? 83 remains ? 181 

Who is the inventor of the Auxetophone?. 83 



NATURE'S PHENO^IENA. 

What is nature's cold storage cave ? 54 Panama ? 229 

Do tall buildings sway? 127 What caused the Adirondack forest fires?. .308 

How deep is the tide in the Harbor of 



POPULAR AMUSEMENTS. 



What is the new toy for boys on the 
Fourth of July ? 47 

On board an English cruiser what was done 
to amuse the children ? 48 

What are some of the experiments now 
done on the English stage ? 104 

What are some of the dangerous entertain- 
ments ? 128 

Where is there a great tobogganing place 
during March and April ? 180 



What is the revolving stage ? 188 

What is one of the great French amuse- 
ments ? 235 

What is the latest foot ball armor? 248 

Are there now dolls that are almost hu- 
man ? 301 

How are dolls made to talk and walk? 301 

What are some of the jokes played on a 

beginner in trade ? 320 

Where are the people outwitting Satan?... 322 



RAILROADS. 



What kind of coaches are the English and 
German railways introducing? 37 

In what is the electric funeral car a con- 
venience ? 40 

How long is the new railroad in Mexico?. 41 

Of what are the bridges of the new road in 
Mexico made ? 42 



Has everything been planned to save time 
on the new railroad in Mexico ? 42 

Are goggles of any use to an engineer ? . . 43 

Who was the first engineer to wear gog- 
gles? 43 

Where do some theatrical companies sleep 
while traveling? 64 



xxiv INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. 

RAILROADS.— Continued. 



Questions Answers 

Page 
What is the standard gauge on the railway?. 68 
Who were the first people to huild tram- 
way tracks ? 7Z 

What company in Chicago used steel cars?. 99 

On a steel car where is wood used? 99 

What is now being used for car wheels?.. 105 
Where are there dining cars on trolley 

roads ? 114 

How can a train of 400 tons, moving at 10 

miles an hour, be stopped quickly? 127 

How are rails welded ? 140 

What can be repaired by welding? 141 

How is ice cut from street car tracks?. ... 167 
Where is there to be a large car building 
plant? 216 



Questions Answers 

Page 
Where is there a double deck car in use?.. 220 

What are the road locomotives? 234 

Where is the largest locomotive in the 

world ? 23O 

Where is there to be a combination locomo- 
tive car ? 250 

What is now the railroad time between Chi- 
cago and New York ? 289 

Why is the new lunch counter on trains a 

success? 311 

How is the road engine built? 336 

With what may the controller on a trolley 

be compared ? 328 

How is a controller on a trolley car used?. 328 
What railroads are educating their firemen 
to become engineers ? 329 



RUSSIAN-JAPANESE WAR. 

How will the Russian war ships be raised?. 67 What was one of the most expensive mili- 

Of what use were the torpedo boats to the tary tests? 298 

Japanese ? 73> How do the Japanese lay mines ? 326 

What were the supplies captured at Port How many Russian soldiers will wear bul- 

Arthur ? 114- let-proof garments ? t,t,2 



SCIENCE. 

What was Prof. Loeb's experiment? 106 What is a precaution against malarial 

What is frazil ice ? 108 fever ? 194 

What are some of the cures with electric How is milk pasteurized ? 331 

light? 15-2 



STEAMBOATS. 



What are the dimensions of the Dakota, 
the new ocean liner ? 58 

What is now the largest vessel in the 
world? 71 

Plow many people will the Caronia carry?. 71 

How many tons of steel were used in the 
construction of the Caronia? 72 

What river boat made a thousand mile 

93 



ocean voyage 



Qe ? 



What was done to accelerate the speed of 

ships ? I TO 

How is a sunken vessel raised? 126 



Where is there a floating light house? 147 

What is the length of the new pilot ship 

Eraser ? 189 

What is the largest troop ship in the 

world ? 202 

Where was the largest troop ship 

launched ? 202 

How is the speed of a ship told before it is 

built? 239 

Where was the Victoria launched? 277 

What is the largest steamship ever built?.. 300 
What steamer sails on Infty mountains?. . .335 



INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. 
STEAAI ENGINES. 



XXV 



Questions Aiiszccrs 

Page 

Why do contractors find a portable pump- 
ing engine very convenient? ^7 

Why is the machinery built low in a pump- 
ing engine ? :iy 

Of what is the London steam motor fire en- 
gine made ? 39 

Is the American engineer comfortable in 
his cab ? 78 

Of what is the new helmet for firemen 
made ? 113 

What is the warming booth for firemen?.. 114 

What country is first in fire departments?. .145 



Questions Answers 

Page 

Where was a freak engine used? 148 

What is a substitute for coal and wood for 

locomotive fuel ? 152 

What is the Kerr compound steam turbine?. 155 
What is the new type of German locomo- 
tive ? 187 

How is fire hose dried by electricity? 267 

Who was the founder of the Baldwin loco- 
motive works ? 272 

What is the diiTerence in firemen? 279 

How does a traction engine travel in the 
air? 309 



TELEGRAPH. 

Is the United States in need of night sig- House ? » 283 

nals ? 138 How many different codes are used in the 

What is the Coston system ? 138 White House ? 2S3 

Is there a telegraph station in the White 



TELEPHONES. 



What is the movable telephone ? 64 

Of what use was the telephone in the Jap- 
anese army ? 68 

How should one talk through a telephone?. 146 



What was the old way of erecting tele- 
phone poles ? 265 

What is the new way ? 265 

How are messages timed? 290 



TRANSPORTATION. 



How are parcels carried in [Manchester, 
England ? 71 

How is mail collected in Australia? 74 

In what country is the bicycle most popu- 
lar? 126 

How was a brick house moved down the 
river a distance of five miles? 131 

How long will it take mail to go through a 
pneumatic tube from Chicago to Milwau- 



kee ? 176 

What is the rural free mail delivery? 178 

How are cannons hauled ? 183 

Where are there electric mail wagons?. .. .217 

Are asphalt roads bad for horses? 225 

How is the mail carried in Thibet? 233 

During August, 1904, how many pieces of 
baggage were handled at the Union Sta- 
tion at St. Louis? 281 



TUNNELS. 



How long is the Simplon tunnel ? in tunnel ? 112 

For what purpose was the Simplon tunnel What will be the cost of the Simplnn tun- 
built? TIT nel? ^ 112 

How long did it take to build the Simplon 



xxvi INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS EOR HOME STUDY. 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 

Questions Anszvers Questions Answers 

Page ■ Page 

Was the wireless message sent from Chi- telegraphy? 171 

cago to Key West a success? 98 How is the receiving instrument put on 

How does London keep in touch with its the tree ? 175 

government in India? 109 Where is there a new system of wireles" 

Has the United States any wireless teleg- telegraph being tried? 312 

raphy stations ? no Where is the largest wireless telegraph sta- 

How are trees of great use in wireless tion ? 2)2Z 




s^ 



Harvesting the Forests by Machinery 

Conditions Presented hy NortH\irestern Forests 

Made CKan^e in L^aborious MetHods 

Imperative 



In no other industry of such great com- 
mercial importance and rank as lumbering 
have the primitive methods of labor ob- 
tained for so many years. In 1634 the first 
sawmill in this country was erected on the 
falls of the Piscataqua on the bound- 
ary line between Maine and New Hamp- 
shire. The machinery consisted of a saw 
S'tretched upon a huge gate or frame, run- 



peculiar buzz of the perfect saws which turn 
out train loads of lumber daily in one of our 
modern sawmills. But, strangely enough, 
the old methods of logging, until very re- 
cently, underwent no relative improvement. 
The trees were felled and loaded on sleds 
and conveyed to some water course to wait 
for the spring freshets' to carry them .down 
to the sawmills— the whole process being 




Log^inig L^ocomotive and Woods* Creiv, Includinsf tl\e CooK and 
His Boxes of Provisions 



ning in wooden slides on ponderous side 
posts and having the pitman connected di- 
rect to an overshot wheel. The changes 
from that time to this in sawmill equipment 
need only be suggested. 

Nearly everyone is' familiar with the 
whirr of the mighty machinery and the 



33 



carried on by man and horse labor and the 
work only lasting through the winter 
months when the snow was sufficient for 
.sledding. Maine saw her forests of pine 
and spruce depleted and wasted by unscien- 
tific methods, and still no change; the mid- 
dle west began to offer up her primeval 



34 



E N C Y C L P J'J D I A 



stores, and yet no great inventive econo- 
mist rose to stay the improvident liand. Then 
across' the continent tow^ard tlie Pacific and 
the Oregon crept the destructive caravan, 
hewing its path into a wilderness of sncli 
magnificent growth as only those who have 
seen can realize. Here grew the California 
redwood, the Washington fir, the Oregon 
pine— a vast wealth, undespoiled. Here, how- 
ever, the old methods of logging did not 
apply; the trees Avere of such huge growth 
and the little snow that fell during the 
rainy season so quickly turned to slush in 
that salubrious clime. Thus it remained for 
the Great Northwest to apply the long de- 
layed "American method." 

In time the steel rail threaded the forests, 
machinery replaced many men and horses 



masts of ships. It is used exclusively in the 
construction of all the war vessels of the 
United States navy, excepting for interior 
decoration, for the masts and spars of rac- 
ing yachts and for flag poles to fly the colors 
of almost every nation in the world. 

In the grey dawn— or earlier— the woods' 
crew turn out of their bunks, which rise 
tier upon tier along the walls of the log 
house, and after a hearty breakfast in the 
cook-house are off to their work in the 
woods. The trees to be felled are marked 
by experts Avho know exactly what trees to 
choose in order to facilitate the worlv. The 
direction the tree should fall is indicated 
by cutting a notch in that side. No sooner 
do tlie markers leave a tree than the fellers 
are there with their saw and sharp two- 




IvOifs Yarded Near 

and power was applied wherever possible. 
The work, too, Avas apportioned and sys- 
tematized, each man having skill in his pe- 
culiar task, and the operations being con- 
ducted on a huge scale throughout the yeax". 
For instance, take a lumber company pos- 
sessing 1,000,000 acres of timber land— not 
an unusual number— it will likely employ 
500 men and use 100 horses, 25 donkey en- 
gines, 10 log loaders and will have built up- 
wards of 100 miles of railway. It is esti- 
mated tliat California, Washington and Ore- 
gon contain 840,000,000,000 ft. of uncut tim- 
ber! Of the Northwestern woods the fir is the 
most valuable. It attains a height of 300 
ft, is straight-grained and suitable for the 



a BrancH R.ailtvay 

edged axes. Spring boards are stuck in 
notches cut in the tree and on these the 
fellers stand while sawing. The saw, ordi- 
narily, is from eight to ten ft. long, hav- 
ing a handle at each end and is operated by 
two men. Sometimes a tree is so large that 
two saws must be spliced together. The 
first cut is made on the side of the fall six 
or eight ft. above the ground, to avoid the 
heavy sap and hard grain at the base, at 
right angles to the line of direction of the 
fall, and one-third way through the trunk. 
The sharp two-edged axes are then used to 
make an undercut and then the fellers begin 
sawing from the other side. While thej^ 
work the saw is kept free of resin by 



E N CYCLOP E L) I A 



35 



means of a bottle of petroleum hung against 
the tree. So skillful are the fellers that in 
the final operation of inserting wedges in 
the last cut made, they can calculate the 
fall within a few inches. The tree falls with 
a crash that shakes the earth and rever- 
berates through the dim forest, but the fel- 
lers do not pause to regard the fallen mon- 
arch. The work is carried on with factory- 
like system and they are off to another 
marked tree almost immediately. Likewise 
the fallen tree has hardly settled into place 
before it is marked off into the required 
lengths— from 28 to 40 ft. Men called ''buck- 
ers" saw up the logs as marked, using a 
stiff saw having but one handle. The bark 
is cut from the side of the log on which it 
is to be dragged, by "barkers." This saves 
friction in passing over the rough ground. 

In the meantime the path of the log to 
the "yarding" point has been cleared of un- 
derbrush and other obstacles by "swamp- 
ers." The "yarding" place is some conven- 
ient central point where the logs are col- 
lected until such time as they shall be sent 
to the banks of a stream or to a branch 
railway to be loaded on flat cars. Where a 
company has many miles of track threading 
its acreage the yarding may be done imme- 





Sboiiv^in^ DonKey Engine and 
Cable 



THe Fellers ivitH Tbeir Sa'w and 
Tivo«£d^ed Axes 

diately alongside a railway. In conveying 
"yarded" logs to the railway or stream two 
donkey engines are used. These engines 
have reels wound with steel wire cable, 
from 500 to 3,000 ft. of % to 1-in. wire to 
a reel, and the two engines are stationed 
the length of the cable apart. The hook 
tender then fastens a heavy chain, which is 
attached to the cable, to the log by means 
of gripping hooks and the yarding engine 
drags the logs to the main skid road. The 
log is then gripped by the hooks on the ca- 
ble of the other engine, and it is dragged 
rapidly over the road to the point desired, 
nothing interrupting its passage, save a 
break in the cable or some accident to the 
engine. To make a turn the cable is run 
over blocks fastened to trees and stumps 
and, at a signal from the hook tender when 
the turn is reached, the engine is stopped 
till the block is removed. A smaller cable 
trails after the log as it is dragged along 
and by this the yarding engine draws l)ack 
the cable from the landing engine. 

Time was Avhen these same engines were 
used for loading the cars, but now the ideal 
loader runs on the railway track and the 
loading is accomplished much more rapidly. 
This engine is self-propelling and the larg- 
est size will handle logs sealing up to 2,000 



36 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Lroadin^ Flat Cars 

ft. and not longer than 60 ft. Its power ap- 
paratus consists of a double cylinder hoisting 
engine with two friction drums and ample 
boiler capacity. The hoisting gear includes 
a heavy swiveled boom block with attach- 
ments, %-in. steel wire guy lines, 150 ft. %- 
in. steel wire hoisting rope fitted with hook, 
pull-down ropes, crotch lines and bunch 
chains. The loader iS' constructed to allow 
empty cars to pass under it. Each axle 
is hung in a frame which supports the car 
and this frame-support is hinged at the top 
on a large shaft attached to the under side 
of the deck. The frames may be swung 
outward and up by means of wire cables ex- 
tending over wheels at the end of the plat- 
form. The car settles on shoes at the base 
of corner legs and the track beneath it is 
clear. 

In loading ears the loader pulls a train 
of "empties" to the first skidway, the 



wheels of the machine are swung up, the 
spotting cable is run under the engine back 
to the second car and they are all pulled 
forward until the first car is in position un- 
der the boom. When loading regular fiats, 
after the front end is loaded the car is 
hauled forward so that the rear end may 
be loaded, and so on through the whole 
string of cars. Logs may be dragged from 
each side of the loader at the same time, 
often from a distance of 1,000 ft. They are 
skidded right up to the car and then the 
skidding tongs are transferred to the center 
of the log, or if there are two pair, a pair 
to each end, which plan holds the log much 
steadier and makes it easier to place it in 
position. Tlio great improvement in method 
is shown in an instance where a log scaling 
2,000 ft. was skidded by the loader over 500 
ft. of rougli ground and loaded on a car in 
just 15 minutes. The same task Avould 
have given men and horses five or six hours 
hard labor to accomplish. 

Steam is the power on both donkey en- 
gines and loader and a pack horse is usually 
kept busy all day carrying water. The 
average daily record for the loader is from 
100,000 to 125,000 ft. It's operation requires 
an engineer, a top loader and two hook or 
ground men. Logs can be loaded from the 
Avater, from a high bank, or from a ditch. 
The load is fastened on the car by chains 
and at last the long train of loaded cars is 
ready to be hauled to a main line — the load 
requiring a good strong locomotive. 
The logging locomotive is to the woods' 




A. Hti^e I«o^ Felled in the NorthM^estern Forests 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



37 




is used for draining cellars and pumping 
out sewers and street excavations. 

With an electric motor directly connected 
to the pump, in place of the engine and 
boiler, the apparatus becomes even more ef- 
ficient, and where an electric current is 
available the motor is frequently substituted 
The machinery is arranged low and built 
especially strong, so that transportation over 
rough ground is rendered safe. 



HOW INVALIDS TRAVEL ABROAD. 



English and German Lines Provide for Their 
Comfort. 



Invalid compartments for fast passenger 
trains is one of the features of transporta- 
tion- that is receiving considerable attention 
abroad. English coaches are now provided 



LrO^ Held Steady "While Loading 
by Ton^s at EacH End 

crew what the private carriage is to the 
citizen. It frequently carries him to and 
from his business; it conveys the camp cook 
and provisions, and it is fired by the ever- 
abundant fuel— wood, which, if necessary, 
may be replenished at almost any point on 
the line. 



A PORTABLE PUMPING ENGINE. 



The portable pumping engine shown in 
the illustration has entered upon a wide 
field of usefulness. Contractors find it espe- 
cially convenient in pumping water out of 
excavations and it has become an essential 
feature of the equipment of the fire and 
street departments of many cities, where it 





For Ptimping Out l^xcavations 



Compartment for Invalids on Ger> 
man Railivas'S 

with a special hammock which is kept in 
the guard's van and may be swung at a 
moment's notice in case of accident or ill- 
ness. One German line has provided a 
more elaborate system and has introduced 
forty special carriages, which resemble 
ordinary carriages, except that two com- 
partments are arranged with a cot and a 
shelf for medicine, water, etc. The doors 
are wider, also, so that the bed may be ad- 
mitted through them. Specially qualified 
attendants are engaged for these compart- 
ments. 



38 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MOTOR STREET SPRINKLER SUPPLANTS 
FOUR HORSES. 



Along with the motor fire engine, motor 
police patrol, motor disinfecting machine, 
etc., comes the motor street sprinkler, the 
first one now being in regular service at 
Hartford, Conn., and already acnredited 
Avith a promising degree of success 

In general style the sprinkler resembles 
the ordinary build of the horse-drawn 
sprinkler. The iron water tank is of the 
usual boiler pattern and has a capacity of 
600 gallons. This tank is mounted on a 
medium-weight truck chassis, power being 
derived from an underslung Exide battery 
of 44 cells. There are two motors, normally 



disposing of their horses and horse-draAvn 
carts immediately. The cost of maintenance 
will be watched very closely and compared 
with the old figures; on this basis the 
actual efficiency of the motor sprinkler will 
be determined. 



NEW PROCESS FOR MAKING BRICK. 

An English gas light and coke company 
have invented a process utilizing two of their 
by-products, clinkers from the furnaces and 
spent lime from the purifiers, in making 
brick, reports United States Consul Stephens, 
of Plymouth, England. 

The proportions of the materials used are 




Motor Car THat SprinKles 

rated at from eight to ten horsepower, and 
the normal speed is six miles per hour. The 
machine covers from 30 to 40 miles daily 
in actual use, or about twice the mileage 
of a two-horse sprinkler with one change of 
horses; in other words, the machine does 
about double the work of four horses. It 
is in the elimiiaation of the horse that the 
motor sprinkler obtains its greatest advan- 
tage. At times when the sprinkler cannot 
be used on account of the season or wet 
weather the owner is not obliged to main- 
tain horses in idleness, thus deriving no 
profit from his expense, as he would in the 
case of the old vehicle. 

For use on the paved streets of the city 
motor vehicles are admirably adapted and 
it is now but a matter of a short time until 
they shall be installed for many forms of 
municipal service. The results with the 
electric street sprinkler, however, it is said, 
do not warrant the sprinkling company's 



Courte'T 01 The Electric Vehicle Co. 

40 Miles of Road Per Day 

about one-fourth lime to one of clinker, and 
the two are mixed and then raised into a 
calcining tower and converted into carbonate 
and silicate of calcium. It is then slaked 
with water and two more parts of clinker 
to one of calcium material is added. The 
proper amount of water is added and the 
mixture is passed through a tempering mill. 
After that it is carried to a platform and 
delivered to a toggle press, out of which the 
brick is turned in soft form. The bricks are 
then placed on Avagons and run into an 
"auto clave," a large tubular vessel, having 
capacity for 7,000 brick, in which they are 
subjected to 110-lb. pressure for 12 hours, 
after which thej' are stacked ready for sale. 
The resisting strength of these bricks is 
350 tons to the 'sqiiare foot and the absorp- 
tion of Avater is very small— about 414 or 5 
per cent. They have successfully with- 
stood tests of alternate freezing and thaw- 
ing and also acid tests. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



39 



MOTOR STEAM FIRE ENGINE FOR LON- 
DON FIRE BRIGADE. 



The Loudon fire brigade has just beeu 
provided with a motor steam fire engine 
of 50 hp. capable of throwing 500 gal. of 
water per minute to a height of 150 ft., and 
the most powerful of its kind in that city. 

The boiler of the engine is fitted with a 
petroleum burner of new pattern and pro- 
duces steam very quickly. A pair of in- 
verted steam cylinders driving two direct 
and double-acting pumps comprise the ma- 



large hose-box and the machine will carry 
eight firemen and an engineer. The road 
wheels are of the artillery pattern, with 
steel rims and solid rubber tires. 

Engines of similar type have been in- 
stalled in many of the important English 
cities. 



ACETYLENE USED FOR BLASTING. 



Acetylene has not met expectations for 
lighting purposes in Germany, according to 
leading papers there. U. S. Consul -General 




THe Poiverful Motor Fire Engine of the I^ondon Fire Briiiade 



chinery, which is placed vertically between 
the frames in front of the boiler. The 
poAver for propulsion is taken from a crank- 
shaft on this engine, says Technics, London, 
by putting a counter-shaft into gear, from 
which the road wheels are driven by a pair 
of steel roller chains running over sprocket 
wheels. Only one set of machinery is re- 
quired for propelling and pumping, as it is 
possible to connect or disconnect the pump 
pistons from the engines in a few seconds. 
A hand- wheel with irreversible gear is used 
for steering and levers for steam, reverse 
and brakes control the engine. There is a 



Guenther, at Frankfort, announces a new 
use for calcium carbide. It can be used as 
an explosive, the process being a very sim- 
ple one. 

By means of an air mixture explosive 
force is obtained which can compete with 
that of powder and dynamite. The explo- 
sion takes place in an air chamber and is 
caused by an electric spark. For this pur- 
pose carbide of calcium is reduced to small 
particles and put into a cartridge, consist- 
ing of a tin box. In this the carbide lies at 
the bottom and above it is a partition filled 
with water. Above this is a vacant space 



40 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



with the electric percussion device. On the 
side of the cartridge is an iron pin by 
means of which the partition between the 
carbide and the water can be perforated. 
After the drill hole has been completed the 
cartridge is placed in it and the hole is 
closed with a wooden stopper. Then the 
protruding iron pin is dealt a blow, by 
which the partition is perforated and the 
water is caused to come in contact with the 



carbide, whereby acetylene gas" is generated. 
This mixes with the air of the drill hole. 
After fiYG minutes the gas is ignited by an 
electric spark. 

By this method of blasting the rock is said 
to be not thrown out, but rent with in- 
numerable cracks, so that it can be easily 
removed afterwards. About 1.7 ounces of 
carbide, which produce about 16 quarts of 
acetylene gas, are used for each cartridge. 



TKe Electric Ftineral Car 



Hats Many .Advantag 

The electric funeral car is the latest de- 
parture in street railway equipment, and 
affords many advantages over the old meth- 
od of traveling to the cemetery in carriages. 
The car is run to a point convenient to the 
house, at a pre-arranged time. The privacy, 
speed, and AAarmth in winter of the con- 
veyance combine to relieve what is often a 
trip dangerous to health, especially of peo- 
ple advanced in years. The expens'e also is 



es Over tKe Old "Way 

mourners. The other compartment is ar- 
ranged similar to the regular passenger car 
with cross seats capable of holding thirty- 
five persons. 

The casket receptacle is 8% feet long and 
32 inches wide, and the top comes to the 
level of the window rail, leaving plenty of 
space above for floral" contributions. Access 
to the casket compartment is had through a 
door from the outside, hinged at the bottom 




Electric Funeral Car Used in Buffalo 



said to be less, placing the conveyance with- 
in reach of a large number of persons. 

The International Railway Company of 
Buffalo, N. Y., at the request of undertakers 
and the public generally has constructed a 
car of special design for the sole purpose of 
carrying funeral parties to cemeteries in the 
neighboi'hood of Buffalo and surrounding 
cities. The car was built in the shops of the 
company, and as' it now stands is divided 
into two separate compartments. 

The front and smaller of these contains 
the casket compartment, which is accessible 
only from the outside of the cai', and a long- 
itudinal .seat for the pall-bearers and chief 



as may be seen in the illustration. In plac- 
ing the casket in the car the door iS' let 
down, a sliding shelf is drawn out and the 
casket laid upon it; after being fastened by 
several pegs the shelf is pushed back again 
and the door is locked. 

The exterior and interior of the car is fin- 
ished in a dark green with heavy draperies 
at the windows and doors. A charge of 
from $25.00 to $35.00 is made for the use 
of the car, and, says the Street Eailway 
Journal, the greater comfort, privacy and 
convenience of the funeral car as compared 
with horse-dra\vu coaches seem to be ap- 
preciated by the public. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 41 

Mexico to Compete ^witH Panama Canal 



IstKinus R-ailviray SHortens Haul 1,000 Miles or More--Saves 
Four Days* Time— Cargoes Must be Transferred 




Immense Electric Crane Used in Building tHe Breakivater 



Mexico will compete witli the Panama 
Canal, not with a water route, but with a 
steam railroad. President Diaz is the mov- 
ing spirit and is pushing the work with re- 
lentless energy. Already the track work is 
completed, and the terminal harbors are be- 
ing constructed to equal any in the world. 

The road is 125 miles long, connecting 
Coatzaeoalcos on the Atlantic side with 
Salina Cruz, the Pacific port. At both places 
enormous breakwaters are being built far 
out into the ocean, and great wharves, some 
of stone and others of steel are nearing 
completion. When the plans are worked 
out a great fleet of the largest ocean-going 
steamers can tie up and all unload at the 
same time. 

It has remained for the present adminis- 
tration to execute a very old idea. As long 
ago as the sixteenth century a survey for an 
isthmu.s canal was made over the route of 



the present railroad, and from time to time 
during the succeeding years new plans and 
re-surveys have been made. Wars and 
changes in administration have always pre- 
vented the completion of any of them. 
Mexicans, Englishmen and Americans have 
in turn been granted concessions, all of 
M^hich resulted in failure. 

In 1881 .James B. Eads, the great Ameri- 
can engineer, planned a ship railway by 
means of which loaded vessels were to be 
floated into a great cradle resting on 
wheels, and to be drawn by locomotives 
across the isthmus on a railway of several 
rails, and again floated at the farther ter- 
minal. This would have obviated the trans- 
fer of the cargo as will now be done. Eads 
was very sanguine of success from an en- 
gineering standpoint, and was granted a 
concession. The magnitude and cost of 
the undertaking, however, discouraged 



42 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 






Terminal Harbor Under Constrtxction at Coatzacoalcos to Be One of tHe 

Finest in tHe World 

financiers, and this plan, too, was finally isthmns railwaj^ as compared with the 

abandoned after considerable money had Panama Canal, is stated by Modern Mexico 

been spent in preliminary work. to be: 

The concession nnder which the present New York to San Francisco (miles) 1,182 

construction has been done, Avas executed ^^'^ ^^^'^^ ^° Sitka " l,2ns 

May 31. 1904, with the English firm of S. .JJ-! ™^ ^ J^^^-y — ::: L' ]'^ 

Pearson & Son. This concern took over the New Orleans to San Francisco.... ' 1,854 

railway already in operation, completed the Liverpool to San Francisco " 797 

gap necessary to finish the line, and began Liverpool to Plonolulu " SQZ 

the harbor work, which is already well ^^ ^he average freight steamer makes 250 
along toward completion. The working "^^^^^ ^ ^^'^^ there is about four days' dif- 
agreement runs for 51 years, during Avhich Terence in favor of the isthmus railway, al- 
the net profits are divided between the gov- lowing tAVO days for unloading and re-load- 
ernment and the Pearsons. For the first 36 ^^S on the railway and one day for pas- 
years the government receives 65 per cent, ^^^e of steamer through the Panama Canal, 
the contractors 35 per cent. Thereafter by ^^ course there are many cargoes Avhich it 
periods of 5 years the government receives ^^'0"1<1 be impractical to transfer, and it is 
more until during the last 5 years it is to assumed there will always be a waiting 
have 76y> per cent. steamer at the farther terminal to receive 

The track is of standard gage, of 80 lb. ^he goods, and destined to the port of de- 
rail, laid on creosoted pine, native hard- ^^^^ry. In the case of getting a warship 
woods and California redwood ties. The o^' other vessel across the isthmus of course 
bridges are steel, the grades and curves ^^^ canal Avould be the only way. 
easy the highest point is only 760 ft. above ^^ is estimated the cost of canal tolls, say. 
sea level. The road is very picturesque in $2,000, and four days' sailing, say, $8,000. 
places, winding through lofty canons Avhich ^or a 5,000-ton cargo would about equal the 
rise abruptly for 5,000 feet.' transfer and freight charges via the rail- 
, The road 'is the first in Mexico to burn ^^''^J'' ^^^t there would still be the saving of 
oil in its locomotives. This oil comes in ^^^^' days time. 

tank steamers from Beaumont, Texas, and is President Diaz recently completed a tour 

30 per cent cheaper than other obtainable of inspection of the railway and harbor 

fuel. Storage tanks at the Atlantic terminal works, and Avas well satisfied with results 

constantly contain 1,500,000 gallons; local '^^'eady accomplished and progress being 

supply stations along the line are kept made. _^^^^^ 

filled. Oil has been found on the isthmus, * ' * 

and is expected in the near future to furnish PANAMA CANAL CONSTRUCTION. 

the supply. Native oil is already sufficient 

to run the company's machine shops. Construction work on the Panama canal 

Immense electric cranes are now being ^^H ^^ actively pushed on the same business 

erected for discharging and loading vessels principles which characterize railroad opera- 

in the quickest possible time. These cranes ^ions. The President has reorganized the 

will transfer direct from the ship's hold to canal board and placed in charge an experi- 

cars, or through hatches in the roof into the cnced railroad man, Theodore P. Shonts, Avho 

warehouses. The terminal yards are very says "Direct business methods, publicity, and 

complete; in fact everything has been absolutely no politics— this is the keynote of 

planned v.'ith the main object of saving time. the policy of the Panama canal commission. 

The saving in sea travel by using the We are al! pitching in with our coats off, and 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



43 



there Avill be no time lost either now or in 
the future." 

As a graceful compliment the govern- 
ment has sent an invitation to England, 
France and Germany to furnish each three 



GOGGLES FOR LOCOMOTIVE DRIVERS. 




Theodore P. SKonts 

engineers to assist our own engineering 
partment in an advisory capacity. 



de- 



TO AVOID RISK OF ACETYLENE EXPLO- 
SIONS. 



There are a few facts concerning acety- 
lene gas, Avhich if borne constantly in mind 
and properly regarded will greatly eliminate 
the dangers of explosion with this gas. 
Acetylene gas is of the same weight as at- 
mospheric air, consequently it cannot be 
removed from a <'e<"eptacle by merely open- 
ing the receptacle, nor even by forcing air 
into it, but the gas and air combine to form 
an explosive. For this reason a light should 
never be brought near acetylene apparatus 
which is being cleaned; repairs of a vessel 
that has held acetylene until it has been 
filled with water should not be made with a 
soldering iron or flame. A person smoking 
tobacco should not approach the acetylene. 

Acetylene gas apparatus should not be 
made of zinc, as this metal is especially 
subject to the action of the gas, and two 
years is sufficient to disintegrate it and leave 
it full of small holes. Galvanized iron, or 
black iron galvanized after it has been 
made up. is advised as a suitable metal, and 
the apparatus should be most carefully test- 
ed, as the lowest explosive limit of this gas 
is 3 per cent acetylene and 97 per cent aii*. 



Engineers on the Chicago and Alton Rail- 
road sj'stem now protect their eyes by the 
use of automobile goggles. The goggles 
were first tried by Engineer Frank Benja- 
min, driver of the fast passenger train run- 
ning between Chicago and St. Louis and 
known as the "Hummer." The engine is a 
monster, with driving wheels 7 ft. 2 in. in 
diameter and capable of making a speed 
of 70 miles an hour under ordinary pressure. 
At the top of a certain grade on the line 
Avhere the highway runs parallel with the 
track, automobilists often wait for the fast 
train and race with it. It was at this time 
Benjamin realized that the automobilists 
had one point of advantage— their goggles- 
while his eyes were filled with dust. The 
next run when Benjamin poked his head 




Engineer Benjamin 'Wearing His 
Gog'^les 

out of the cab window, he also wore a pair. 
The goggles are an important innovation 
among the engineers on the Alton, and when 
they come in from a run with grimj- hands 
and faces, the clear white disk around the 
eyes testifies to the protection afforded by 
their use. 



UTILIZING BLACK SMOKE. 

Black smoke is utilized in many Belgian 
factories instead of being allowed to pass 
off into the open air, says the Journal of 
Gas and Sanitary Engineering, London. 
Fans drive the smoke into a porous recep- 
tacle, over Avhich flows a stream of petrol- 
eum or other liquid and the smoke is con- 
verted into gas. This gas gives a high heat 
and is used for running gas engines. 



44 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HOW TO TAKE MICROPHOTOGRAPHS. 



Any photographer can take up the branch 
of microphotography without putting a large 
sum into special apparatus. Ordinarily the 
photographer considers that this branch in- 
volves an outlay of about $300 and then a 



year's time spent in learning to run the ma- pensed with. 



microscope as nearly as possible. An image 
can be secured without either camera lens 
or microscope eyepiece, or without both, but 
more satisfactory results are secured with 
these lenses in place. Cover the juncture of 
the camera and the microscope with black 
cloth. This too can, on occasion, be dis- 




Arran^ement of Camera and Microscope 



chinery successfully. He is deluded! Mi- 
crophotographs can be made with an ordi- 
nary camera — any camera which has a 
ground glass for focusing will serve. 

Mount the object to be photographed and 
place it in a compound microscope in the 
usual way. Bring down the microscope tube 
till its axis is horizontal and place the sub- 
stage reflector so as to throw a strong light 
through the section. Then place the camera 
directly back of the microscope, so that the 
camera lens is within a half inch of the 
microscope eyepiece, the axis of the camera 
lens coinciding with the lens in the 




Section of Pluan Graft 



To locate and focus the image on the 
ground glass, the substage reflector must be 
adjusted so that it gives a strong and even 
illumination all over the fleld and both mi- 
croscope and camera must be focused. These 
last tv/o operations can be combined at 
times, to an extent, and after a little prac- 
tice exact focusing becomes an acquired 
habit, and with the naked eye a minute dif- 
ference in microscope focus can be dis- 
cerned. 

Anything that can be seen in the micro- 
scope can be photographed on the plate in 
this way, and sometimes- the effect in the 
photograph is better that that which was 
impressed on the vision. The quality of the 
Avork is equal to that produced with expen- 
sive machinery. The illustration gives an 
example of the results obtained with this 
apparatus. The subject is an indifferent sec- 
tion of wood tissue, unstained, and prepared 
not at all. It is magnified 1,000 diameters 
and the pitted wood cells of the ducts are 
plainly visible. 

♦ » » 

During a recent voyage when a heavy fog 
had shut down and rendered navigation 
perilous, the liners "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and 
the "Teutonic" were warned of the latitude 
and longitude of many huge icebergs by 
means of wireless telegraph messages sent 
from the Cunarder "Caronia." Wireless 
telegraphy is destined to find its most im- 
portant field in rendering the navigation of 
the seas less perilous. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 45 

Plunges Into Space 4»000 Feet Above tHe EartK 



Most Daring Test of Fly^ing-MacKine Ever Made— Machine veith 
Operator To'wed tip by a Balloon and Cut Loose 




'Cut Lfoose from a Balloon 4OOO Feet in tHe Air** 



Cut loose from a balloon 4,000 ft. in the 
air and under the guidance of a skillful 
aeronaut, Professor John J. Montgomery's 
birdlike aeroplane made a successful and 
spectacular flight at Santa Clara College, 
California, a few days ago. The machine 
which weighs but 42 lb. disported itself with 
something of the grace and buoyancy of a 
wild bird, though its wings sustained the 
weight of a 142-lb. man. 

The aeroplane consists of four wings, hav- 
ing a spread of 22 ft. and built of spruce 
ribs with light cross ribs of hickory, upon 
which canvas is stretched. Each of these 
wings is rigid at the front, and a series of 
guy wires which are controlled by the aero- 
naut run from the frame to which they are 
attached to points along their sides. When 
the aeronaut pulls the wires one wing curves 
downward while the opposite wing relaxes. 
The four wings are operated as but two. 
The machine is steered by a tail which the 
aeronaut raises or lowers at will. When it 
is tilted upward the machine raises in front, 
or to dip downward, the tail is lowered. To 
alight the aeronaut raises the tail at the 
close of the descent and the machine as- 
sumes a horizontal position and the aeronaut 
may step off. 

Such was the machine on which the flight 
was made— probably the nearest approach 
to flying man has ever achieved. The as- 
cent was made by means of a huge egg- 
shaped balloon, which broke away from its 
moorings just before the appointed time and 
carried the aeronaut up sooner than he had 
intended. A great altitude was attained 



with startling rapidity, and at a height of 
something more than 4,000 ft. the aeroplane 
was cut loose from the balloon. It instantly 
settled on its wings while the performer 
directed it in circles, or caused it to mount 
or dip. Then he began steering downward, 
and lighted without the suggestion of a 
shock on a spot previously selected. The 
flight occupied just fifteen minutes and was 
carried out in every particular just as pre- 
viously arranged. 



CONCRETE BEAMS 102 FEET LONG. 



Eight huge concrete beams 102 ft. high 
support the roof of a concrete warehouse 
now under construction in Los Angeles, Cal. 
These beams are the largest ever made of 
concrete, 52 ft. being the nearest approach. 

The building in which these huge sup- 
ports are being used is being built entirely 
of concrete for experimental purposes. The 
walls and roof are of concrete blocks and 
while the front is built up of compressed 
brick, it is coated over with a layer of the 
concrete. The last beam finished supports 
the middle arch of the warehouse and for 
all its great length is less than 2 ft. thick. 
Iron hooks were imbedded in the huge 
beams before the concrete set and it is in- 
tended to attach a suspended gallery to 
them. It is said that when the supports 
were removed from the beams they had 
settled but sixty-eight-hundredths of an 
inch.— Contributed by R. W. Elliott, Los 
Angeles, Cal. 



46 



EN C Y C LO P K I) I A 

Building tKe Highest Bridge in the World 



"WorK Proceeds 4OO Feet Above tKe Zambezi's Boilins' Pot— 
Hovr tHe TelepHone Furtbered Constrtxction 



At a point on the Zambezi river, just be- 
low the magnificent Victoria Falls and 
where the river disappears into a deep can- 
on, in the midst of the most luxm'iaut 
growth and beautiful scenery to be found 
in Africa, the construction of the highest 
bridge in the world is proceeding to a suc- 
cessful completion. In the vast solitude of 



abysmal deep and link the shores of that 
smiling land. Just below the precipitous 
banks strike sheerly down 400 feet to the 
deep river and the "Boiling Pot" that 
marks its entrance to the 20-mile canon. 
Above the river, in mid-air, and suspended 
from the approach spans by wire ropes, 
swings' thb groat traveling safety-net or 




' Suspended From the ApproacH Spans S'win^s tbe Great Traveling 

Safet>' Net or Cradle'* 



an untamed country the bustling camps of 
workmen with their modern engineering 
devices have been established for some 
time, and already the approach spans reach 
out from either side like two huge arms 
which would fain clasp hands across the 



cradle, which is to catch Avorkmen and tools 
sliould either fall from that giddy height 
above. 

The erection of the mighty span is unique 
in the annals of bridge construction. Ow- 
ing to the conditions presented by the deep 



ENvJ YCLOPK I) LA 



47 




Crossing tHe Gorge in a Slin^ 

gorge it was impossible to erect scaffolding 
and the structure, which is built on the 
cantilever principle, has been entirely self- 
supporting. The first means of crossing the 
gorge employed was by firing across a rock- 
et to which a slender cord was attached. 
Then a stouter cord was drawn across, and 
finally a telephone wire, and telephone 
communication was immediately set up. The 
distance straight across the gorge at the 
point selected is only 600 ft., but the tele- 
phone saved the engineers traveling a dis- 
tance of ten miles around After the tele- 
phone wire, came a marked steel wire on 
which a strain was put. A spring balance 
which computed the sag of the wire was 
the means of measuring the strain. For a 
time workmen and tools swung out across 
the gorge on a strong steel cable,- later an 
aerial electric cableway 900 ft. long and 
capable of carrying ten tons was provided. 
One of the illustrations shows the aerial 
car passing along this cable way. 

The total length of the Victoria bridge, 
which will form an important link in the 
Cape to Cairo railroad, is to be 650 ft., com- 
prising three spans*. The northern approach 
span will be 6214 ft. long, the southern 8714 
ft long and the main span 500 ft. The dis- 
tance from rail level to low water level is 
.lust 420 ft. to high water level, 380 ft. 

In design, the bridge is intended to en- 
hance rather than detract from the gran- 
deur of the spot. All that appears above 
the tracki? is a simple iron railing. There 



are no concrete piers or unsightly towers; 
very little masonry is visible; the structure 
appears but a lattice work of graceful gird- 
ers. A huge hotel is being constructed near 
by and an area of six miles on each side 
of the river is to be reserved as a public 
park. It is expected that the place will be- 
come a point of great interest to tourists. 

The Cape to Cairo route will not be a 
continuous trunk line, but will comprise 
4,000 miles of railroad and 2,000 miles of 
waterway on lakes and the Nile river. 

♦-•-e> 

NEW TOY FOR THE FOURTH OF JULY. 



The small boy may yet be able to cele- 
brate the glorious Fourth after his heart's 
desires and without danger to himself, de- 
spite all that has been said about a "blood- 
less Fourth." A member of the Lehigh Uni- 
versity, it is said, has invented a toy can- 
non which makes a loud report and a bright 
flash, but cannot explode nor burn, and 
shoots corks only. In this toy an electric 
spark ignites gas and air, which causes the 
report and flash and shoots the cork. The 
flame emitted is of such low temperature 
that it will not scorch tissue paper. The 
cost of 5,000 shots by the cannon will not 
be more than. 5 cents. 




The Aerial £lec«ric Cable M^hich 
Noiv Spans tHe Gor^e 



48 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



BLOWING SAND OUT OF WELLS BY COM- 
PRESSED AIR. 



High Pressure Creates Artificial Geysers— Ma- 
terial Spurts 75 Feet Into the Air 

For removing sand, from wells the com- 
pressed air method recently experimented 
with may prove to be superior to the sand- 
pump, though the method has not as yet 







• 


1 


m 




1 


1 


.^ 




Ki 


^^tl^ 


'• ,. , . ...^^:v:.:p^^^,, ■■•,:,,'' 



'"WitH Geyser-I^ike CfTect tHe Ma- 
terial SHot 75 Feet Into tHe Air" 

been tried under wholly favorable condi- 
tions. The process consists in pumping up 
a high pressure in the receiver and discharg- 
ing it through a small pipe put down into 
the well. By this means the sand is stirred 
up and carried off by the large flow of water 
due to the action of the air-lift. This ac- 
tion is so violent that any rust on the per- 
forations is knocked off and blown out also. 

Three wells of different depths and pre- 
senting different conditions were experi- 
mented with In one Avaier and sand shot 
into the air to a height of 75 ft., making a 
roaring noise as it came, but despite the 
amount of material discharged, the flow of 
the water remained about the same. In 
another having a 6-in. wooden casing fine 
sand poured in as rapicjly as it was pumped 
out. 

Several important facts were decided, 
however, says Compresred Air. To obtain 



good results with the air lift the well must 
be able to furnish enough water to carry 
off the sand, rust, etc., in the discharge; it 
is sometimes better to pump the well stead- 
ily rather than to use the discharge from 
the receiver. Sudden diminution of pres- 
sure on the inside of the casing is caused 
by a discharge from the receiver, and if 
the casing is old and the well's water sup- 
ply small, the casing may collapse. It is 
not always necessary to put the end of the 
air pipe at the bottom of the well. With a 
careful study of these deductions, excellent 
results may yet be attained by this means. 

» ♦» 

SHOOTING THE CHUTE ON BOARD A 
CRUSIER. 



At a children's party given on board an 
English cruiser in the Bosphorus strait re- 
cently a canvas chute sloping from the up- 
per bridge down to the deck was rigged up, 
and was the most popular amusement ar- 
ranged for the children. As will be noted 




SHootin^ tHe CHute 

from the illustration the canvas was se- 
cured with strong ropes to the guard-rail, 
and then to test its safety reveral of the 
heaviest officers made preliminary slides. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 4.0 

THe Apron StretcHer in Naval Surgery 



Stirs'eon Ltin^, of the American Navy, Invents a Life-Saving 

StretcHer. 




Injured Sailor Bein^ I^et Do>vn From Fi^Htin^ Top. 



The most important auxiliary to the worli 
of the surgeon on board a man-of-war, 
which has appeared in many years has been 
invented and tested by Dr. George A Lung, 
chief surgeon on the battleship "Kentucliy," 
United States Navy. The doctor has named 
his device tlie "Apron Stretcher"; it is to be 
used on all the vessels of our navy, and 



will save not only untold tortures to many 
a brave sailor, but many lives. It is some- 
thing which has long been needed, for 
nowhere are accidents more likely to occur, 
even in times of peace, than on a modern 
man-of-war. 

Owing to the crowding of men in relative- 
ly small places, the employment of complex 



50 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Manner of R.etnoval From Turret. 

mechanical contrivances, and the hazards 
of nnnsual occupations, many accidents are 
not uncommon. These conditions that pre- 
vail in times of peace are aggravated a hnn- 
dred-fold during an engagement. Then the 
hurry and excitement, the dangers incident 
to handling explosives and ammunition, and 
the firing of various weapons of war, to say 
nothing of the countless dangers imposed by 
the enemy, multiply the chances for in- 
jury innumerably. The character of the in- 
juries will vary from slight contusions to 
complete destruction of the body. 

In a battle on land the fighting line will 
probably shift its position leaving the 
wounded in a zone of comparative safety, 
but on the battleship the removal of the 
injured is full of peril to both the hospital 
corps and the wounded. 

Unless one has been on a modern man-of- 
war and examined its interior construction 
he can have no adequate conception of what 
the naval surgeon has to contend with in his 
care of the injured. 

With its mass of machinery, its tangle of 
pipes, conduits, wires, rods and hoists, its 
labyrinths of compartments, its maze of long 
narrow and often tortuous passages, its 
hatchways leading down to depths or open- 
ing lip to lofty elevations, it is confusing 
in the extreme. The structure is as com- 
plex as the human anatomy. The multiplic- 
ity of barriers are as embarrassing as those 



artificial obstructions one encounters in an 
obstacle race. Even for a healthy sound 
man to move about within a man-of-war, 
such as we have in mind, calls for almost 
the constant use of both hands and feet, and 
more than ordinary agility. 

There are coal bunkers into which men 
go, work and are sometimes injured, the 
only exit from which is through a circular 
opening twenty inches in diameter. There 
are military tops many feet from the deck 
in Avhich men are stationed in time of battle, 
and while there they may be severely 
wounded. Access to and from these tops is 
through a small aperture in their floors and 
down many feet by perpendicular ladders, 
and over bridges and various platforms. 
There are fire rooms, whose only means of 
egress, especially during an engagement is 
a perpendicular ladder twenty or more feet 
in heiglit. And so one might go on naming 
manjf similar difficulties encountered in go- 
ing from one part of a ship to another. Ob- 
viously the patient cannot be treated where 
he is injured; the problem has always been 
how to remove him to another part of the 
ship, or to another ship. Suppose, for in- 
stance, a man has his leg broken while in 
the upper forwai'd fighting top of such a 
ship as the "Kentucky." A healthy agile man, 
free handed and free footed, would come 
down climbing over the following struc- 
tures: — Through the lubbers hole in the floor 
of the top, down by a ladder let in the side 
of the mast to the loAver fighting top, tlience 
through a similar lubber hole, and down a 
similar ladder to the searchlight platform, 
thence to the bridge on top of the pilot 
house, thence down a narrow stairway to 
the forward bridge, thence down another 
ladder to the fore and aft bridge, thence 
down another ladder to the upper deck, 
thence forward twenty or thirty feet to an- 
other ladder to the main deck, thence down 




Ready to Carry* 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



51 




Descending Steep Stairs 

still another ladder to the berth deck on 
which the sick bay is located. Excepting 
the ladders on the side of the steel mast, 
all the other so-called ladders are really 
flights of stairs made of steel and inclined 
at an angle of forty-five degrees, and about 
twenty inches wide from side to side. Their 
sides are protected by hand ropes, that is 
a single rope on which one ordinarily holds 
in going up or down. The average man 
would almost prefer death to the suffering 
entailed in being carried down in the arms 
of his mates, as fireman rescue people from 
burning buildings. 

With all these conditions in mind Dr. Lung 
set to work, to invent something practical, 
and he succeeded. His apron stretcher con- 
sists of a frame of ash, 6 ft. 4 in. long, with 
canvas handles on the ends and sides. The 
frame is covered with canvas, Avith a fiap ex- 
tending along each side which spreads out 
like the leaves of an open book. The patient 
is placed at full length in the stretcher, 
then the side flaps are laid over the body 
and fastened securely with hooks and lac- 
ing through holes in the canvas flaps. When 
the lacing is done the man is held as firmly 
as a corset holds the body, and he can be 
carried in any desired position, let down 
with a rope, or hauled up as the case may 
be. The stretcher incloses the entire body 
very much as a broken arm or leg is held 



in a splint. The canvas can be fastened 
loosely over the injured part, and the plac- 
ing of the patient is the work of only a few 
moments. The stretcher is equally valu- 
able for police ambulances and other outside 
hospital work. 

Dr. Lung is a genuine fighting surgeon. In 
April, 1899, he accompanied a detachment 
of 60 American officers and men, who left 
Apia, Samoa, with a detachment of British 
marines for the purpose of breaking up a 
camp of rebellious Mataafa natives. The 
party was ambuslied and all the officers 
killed, leaving the command in the hands of 
Dr. Lung. He fought his way desperately 
to the American consulate, which was only 
reached after many hours of great danger. 
The doctor also took part in the Boxer 
trouble and marched with our forces to 
Pekin. Later he had entire medical charge 
of the province of Cavite, in the Philippines, 
during the plague, and cleaned the towns, 
streets and houses as they had never before 
been cleaned. He holds rank as lieutenant, 
and has served as the President's physician. 



WOOD-OIL- 



-CHINESE PRODUCT- 
MANY USES. 



PUT TO 



Wood-oil— produced from the nuts of the 
wood-oil tree of China— has found such a 
good market in this country for the past six 
years that the cultivation of the trees from 
which it IS extracted is being experimented 
with here. 

There are three grades of the oil, light- 
yellow, brownish, and black, the first being 
the grade used most. For polishing unpaint- 
ed boats it gives the wood a bright, clean, 
light-yellow appearance, acts as a preserv- 
ative and makes the craft impervious to 
moisture. Mixed with quicklime it makes a 
good glazier's putty. It is, also, a good 
dressing for leather, and makes an excel- 
lent varnish for fine furniture. It is used in 
soap-making also. 

In this country the trees would not bear 
nuts farther north than Georgia or Alabama, 
but might be grown for shade trees and 
their wood in colder climes. The trees av- 
erage about 20 feet in height and from 7 to 
10 inches in diameter. They are very stately, 
with smooth green bark and spreading 
branches. The nuts on the tree are about 
the size of a small orange, and have seg- 
mented shells which burst open when the 
fruit is ripe. These shells contain three tri- 
angular seeds resembling Brazil nuts in 
taste and shape. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



DISINFECTING MACHINE MAKES SHORT 
WORK OF GERMS. 



MAKING CEMENT POSTS. 



The health boards of a number of large 
cities are watching with interest the results 
produced by a novel germ killing machine 
recently added to the equipment of the San 
Francisco Health Department. The machine 
whicn is self-propelled, is called the "Steri- 
lizer," and whenever there is a call from an 
infected house, it lumbers away at the rate 



Farmers all over the country are learning 
that the cement post is the proper substi- 
tute for the old wooden ones Avhich have 
always caused considerable trouble, rotting, 
blowing down, or being rubbed down 
by stock. Many farmers are now making 
their own cement posts. A correspondent 
of the Rural New Yorker, who did this, 
tells how he went about it. He says: 




Disix^fectin^ MacHine in Use irk. San Francisco 



of six miles an hour to render clean and 
sanitary the disease-infested habitation. 

Bedding, carpets, clothing and other arti- 
cles where the germs are apt to linger are 
loaded into a cylinder, 5 by 7 ft. in dimen- 
sions, located at the rear of the machine and 
then the air-tight door is swung to and se- 
cured. All the air is then drawn from the 
cylinder by means of a vacuum pump and 
steam at a pressure of 25 lb. to the square 
inch is turned in. By reason of the absence 
of air and the high pressure, the steam pene- 
trates between every fiber of the carpets, 
and through the thick mattresses, doing its 
purifying process in a thorough manner. At 
the end of 30 minutes the steam is turned 
ofC, every germ having been destroyed, it is 
said. 

When fine fabrics, such as silks and tapes- 
tries, are to be disinfected formalin is used 
instead of steam. A half pint of formalin 
placed in the cylinder forms a deadly gas 
Avhich kills the bacteria in a few minutes, 
without injuring the articles. 



The first step is to make a mold in 
which the post is to be cast. This mold is 
nothing more than a wooden box without 
lid, and made in the shape you want your 
post. A common form is that of the old- 
time sawed post, tapering from the bottom 
to top. The sides of the mold should be on 
hinges, so that when the post is made they 
can be dropped in order to facilitate the 
removal of the post. The mold can be held 
together by means of clamps or hooks. 

To prepare the cement have a strong mix- 
ing box, and into this put cement and a 
sharp sand in the proportion of one part 
of cement to five of sand. Some finely 
crushed stone may be used with the sand. 
Some use one part cement to six of sand, 
but the less sand you use the stronger your 
post will be up to about half and half. 
Mix cement and sand thoroughly dry, and 
then add water until you have the mixture 
in the shape of soft mortar. Lay mold 
down on a couple of blocks near mortar 
box, and in it place three or four strands 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



53 



of barbed wire, bent and curved so they 
will run all through the post. Then fill up 
mold with "grout" (or sand and cement), 
smoothing off the top with a trowel. If you 
want eyes in posts to fasten fence to, take 
a heavy Avire or small rod and make some 
staples which may be inserted in the post 
while the cement is still soft. If you do 
not care to wait for the cement to set it is 
not a bad plan to have two molds, so that 
one post will set or harden while the other 
is being made. The cement post will break 



TRANSPORTER BRIDGE 1,000 FEET LONG. 



An aerial ferry or transporter bridge, 1,000 
feet long in the clear, and spanning the Mer- 
sey has been opened to service connecting 
Widnes and Runcorn. The bridge has the 
longest span of any bridge in the United 
Ivingdom designed for road traffic. The over- 
head truss-work is liung from two cables 
each containing 2,413 wires and weighing 
243 tons. The truss is 18 ft. high by 35 ft. 
wide and allows a clearance of 82 ft. above 




Axk .Aerial Ferry 1,000 Feet L>on^ 



off sometimes unless there is a rod or wire 
cast inside to give it strength. An ordinary- 
sized cement post will cost from 30 to 40 
cents, according to price of material used 
in its construction. 



SPARKLESS MOTORS FOR MINING OPE- 
RATIONS. 



Sparkless ?nachinery is said to be the 
only safe apparatus in guarding against ex- 
plosions in mines. All gases will permeate 
throughout the most minute openings and 
hence it is impossible to make an enclosed 
motor absolutely gas proof. The Electrical 
Review, London, advises the use of the 
semi-enclosed motor as safest, that is, mo- 
tors having the openings entirely closed 
over by a fine gauze network, rendering 
them dust proof, but not gas proof. It says 
that motors without sparking commutators 
are preferable and would advocate the use 
of induction motors for mining operations, 
as they are free from sparking and also 
stronger to bear the rough usage given them 
in mines. 



liigh water, and is fixed to vertical rockers 
at each end to provide for expansion and 
contraction. Tlie towers are of steel, 190 ft. 
high and rest on eight cast iron cylinders 
9 ft. in diameter which are anchored to the 
solid rock. 

The transporter car is 55 ft. long by 24 ft. 
wide suspended by cables from an overhead 
trolley 77 ft. long and running on 16 wheels. 
Four electric motors propel the car, power 
being generated by gas engines in one of 
the towers. Four loaded wagons and 300 
passengers can be taken across on each trip 
which occupies 2Vi minutes in crossing. The 
bottom of the car is 12 ft. above the watei". 
The bridge cost $650,000. 



HOW TO DARKEN OAK. 



Oak may be immediately and easily dark- 
ened by laying on liquid ammonia evenly 
\\ith a rag or brush. The effect produced 
is just the sfi.me as is produced naturally by 
age and color will not fade. 



54 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



RADICAL CHANGE IN GREAT LAKES 
FREIGHTERS. 



New conditions growing out of improved 
mechanical appliances for unloading ore, 
coal and grain cargoes have resulted in a 




Copyright w fawcett. 

Type of LraKe Freig^hter 'wHicb is to Supplant Old Car^o Vessels 



NATURAL COLD STORAGE. 



Nature has provided persons in the vicin- 
ity of Pineville, Mo., with a perfect cold 
storage plant. Perishable products, such as 
apples, potatoes, etc., placed in the entrance 
of a cave there, it is said, are kept in a state 
of perfect preservation. The entrance which 
is 21/2 by 8 ft, extends back 75 ft. into a 
room 24 ft. wide and 180 ft. long, whence 
a draft of cool air is always pouring 
through the entrance. There are many 
such caves in this country. In some of 
which ice forms throughout the summer 
season. 



radical change in the construction of the 
mammoth steam freighters on the Great 
Lakes. A few years ago when the whale- 
backs came into service they displaced hun- 
dreds of sailing vessels, and now the whale- 
backs are to be sent to the Atlantic coast 
trade. 

The development and general erection of 
the clam-shell bucket hoisting system and 
the unloading ports, has brought about the 
change in the carrying craft, just as heavier 
engines forced railroads to rebuild bridges 
and tracks. 

The new vessels are already nearly 600 




'WorHia^ In tl&e Hoia of tHe New lO.OOO-Ton LalCe SHip 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



55 



ft. long, with one large compartment usually 
400 ft. in length for the cargo. This space 
is clear of posts and braces, the floor and 
deck construction being such as to avoid 
these obstructions and still retain the nec- 
essary strength. Space beneath the floor 
leaves ample room for water ballast. The 



interior construction is illustrated, although 
the small braces shown are only temporary 
to support platforms for the workmen. 
When completed the cargo space is clear 
from end to end. The boilers and machinery 
are placed at the stern. One of these boats 
will carry 10,000 tons. 



MecHanical Watering Device for GreenHouses 




Section SHowin^ Pipe, Nozzle, Valve and Swivel Handle 



In many vegetable houses, particularly 
those where lettuce is grown, irrigation is ac- 
complished by means of a mechanical water- 
ing device, says the Florist's Review. The 
device consists of a line of pipe, or if the 
house is large, two lines, having small 
nozzles with spray caps inserted about three 
feet apart. The pipe turns on a swivel 
which has a handle for the convenience of 
the operator and the spray may be directed 
as pleased, or made to cover a large radius 
if desired. When the water is under high 
pressure the stream is brolven up into a 
fine mist which would not beat down the 
most delicate plant, nor bruise tlie smallest 
petal of a flower. The water is thoroughly 
aerated, also, it is said, and this too is an 
advantage. 

The device may be operated nicely witli 
a pressure not under 40 lb. but is more 
satisfactory where a gasoline pumping en- 
gine is installed. An engine having a capac- 
ity of 20 gal. per minute and capable of 



working against a pressure of 90 lb. per 
square inch, pumping directly into the pipe 
line, will supply 150 spray nozzles, and will 
consume two gallons of gasoline in one 
day's run. The device is soon to be tested 
for watering cut flowers and in plant 
houses. 

» ♦ » 

DENTISTS ON OCEAN VESSELS. 



Ocean-going passenger steamers may in 
the future be provided with modernly 
equipped dental parlors under charge of a 
competent ship's dentist. The American 
Shipbuilder suggests the great comfort this 
innovation would often afford passengers, 
officers and crew. Without it, an entire 
voyage might be rendered miserable by 
a single aching tooth. Also many persons 
would find themselves at greater leisure to 
have their dental worlc attended to on 
board ship than on shore, and the chairs 
would be filled from port to port. 



56 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 57 

PUMPING WATER IN MEXICO. ^NOVEL CONTEST OF ICEMEN. 



Primitive Devices that Have Remained in Use 
Even to the 20th Century 



Mexico, so near to and yet so far from 
the United States and our progressive cities 
and farmlands, only within recent years 
is beginning- to feel the iron grip of prog- 
ress struggling with her shackles and seek- 
ing to strike them away. Among the an- 
cient and picturesque devices still in gen- 
eral use in that country are the "pumping 
engines" for elevating water. 

Some of these machines are shown in the 
accompanying illustrations. In the first one 
it will be noticed that but one man is re- 
quired to keep the wheel with its continu- 
ous chain of buckets in motion, and the 
work is not so strenuous but that he can 
bear the warmth of full garb, while in an- 
other two men clinging to a sapling placed 
above the wheel are required to generate 
the power, and are working without shirts. 
The fact that one is subjected to the glare 
of the sun, while the others are protected 
from it by trees may account for this dif- 
ference in the amount of clothing worn, 
however. The other devices are so famil- 
iar in one form or another to everyone that 
a glance explains them. 

Modern type irrigation i^umps of the tur- 
bine pattern are now rapidly replacing 
these quaint devices. Power is cheaply de- 
veloped by utilizing the many mountain 
streams for generating electric current, and 
then distributing it over the vast agricul- 
tural areas lying between the mountain 
chains. 

■♦ « » 

THE FINEST FIRE DEPARTMENT IN THE 

WORLD TO INSTALL MOTOR FIRE 

ENGINES. 



The fire service department of Vienna, 
Austria, long held up as a model on the 
European continent, has taken one of the 
most important steps in the history of fire- 
protection service— i. e., the installation of 
self-propelled fire engines. The municipal 
authorities have ordered 53 motor chemical 
engines— the beginning • of a sweeping 
cliange which is to re-equip both the city's 
professional fire brigade and the auxiliary 
suburban volunteer fire brigades. The 
change will cost the city about $180,000, it 
is estimated, but will effect a saving of 
more than $15,000. The machines are to be 
of the latest improved type. 



One Prize Winner Carried a Load of 405 Pounds 



The Ice Producers' Association of the Mid- 
dle States held its annual convention re- 
cently at Cleveland, 0. The reading of pa- 
pers was varied by a most original and in- 
teresting contest, in which a large number 
of employes of ice companies took part. 
Manv of the delegates brought one of their 




Courtesy Ice and Refrigeration 

Delivering a 400«L>b. Cake of Ice 

star wagon men along. Some of the con- 
tests, and winners, Avere as follows: 

Loading three tons of manufactured ice in 
blocks weighing 300 lbs. each, into a cov- 
ered wagon. Won by Wm. Diller, Cincinnati; 
time 4 minutes, 58% seconds. 

Lifting a block of ice weighing 150 lbs. 
from the ground to the shoulder, and carry- 
ing the load 300 ft. and return. Won by 
John Dallcher, Cleveland; time 25 seconds. 

Cutting a 400-lb. block into 40 equal parts. 
Won by H. Luth, Cleveland; time 2 min- 
utes, 14 seconds. 

Ice carrying contest; won by Chas. Che- 
vanki, who carried a block of ice weighing 
405 lbs. 

The contest was the first of its kind and 
was witnessed by a large crowd in addition 
to the convention delegates. 



58 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



THREE HUNDRED PINS PER MINUTE. 



A machine lias recently been perfected at 
Springfield, Mass., by means of which three 
hundred pins can be manufactured in one 
minute, this being five times the capacity of 
the machines now in use. Not only this, 
but an auxiliary machine is said to have 
been designed which will insert the pins in 
paper thirty at a time, when the present 
equipment allows onlj^ one at a time to be 
inserted. This will mean an enormous in- 
crease in the daily output of the factories, 
which even now is exceedingly large. The 
output of the largest pin manufactory in the 



THE "DAKOTA" FOR PACIFIC TRADE A 

MONSTER. 



The huge twin-screw steel steamship 
"Dakota," together with her sister ship the 
"Minnesota," built for the Orient freight 
and passenger trade are wholly products of 
American designers and Avorkmen, and as 
such are commanding the admiration and, 
we may add, due respect, of all the world. 
The ves'sels are the largest and fastest 
ships which will engage in the Pacific trade, 
and will remain so for many years, says the 
American Shipbuilder. The two vessels are 
the investment of James J. Hill, and to- 




Tl&e "DaKota** Carries 

world, at Birmingham, England, is 37,000,000 
for every working day, and the total produc- 
tion in Europe is 602,000,000 a week. In the 
United States also the daily protUict figures 
into the millions. And of all these thou- 
sands of tons of pins, only about one per 
cent are worn out or broken, the other nine- 
ty-nine per cent are lost or thrown away. 



It is stated by the London county high- 
ways committee that in England the cost 
of running motor omnibuses carrying 34 
passengers is from 22 to 24 cents per car 
mile, while for electric tramcars which 
carry from 50 to 70 passengers it is only 10 
to 12 cents. The tramways pay rates and 
maintain 18-in. carriage way on either side 
of the line. 



21,000 Tons of Cargo. 

gether cost $6,000,000, on which the owner 
expects to realize a goodly profit. 

The dimensions of the "Dakota," which 
is just completed, are as follows: 

Length, 630 ft.; beam, 73 ft. 6 in.; depth, 
56 ft; draft loaded, 38 ft.; gross tons, 21,000; 
net tons, 13,500; displacement, 37,500 Avhen 
loaded to the Plimsoll mark. She has ac- 
commodations for 206 first and 66 intermedi- 
ate class, and 720 steerage passengers, and 
21,000 tons of cargo. As a troop ship she 
could carry 1,200 troops, with their baggage 
and full equipment, besides a large cargo. 
Her officers and crew number about 450. 

The motive power of the vessel is said 
to be one of the finest jobs ever turned out 
by an American concern, and is the most 
interesting feature of her construction. The 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



59 



main engines consist of 
two sets of tliree- cylinder 
vertical, inverted, direct- 
acting, triple expansion 
engines, with cylinders 
29, 51 and 89 in. in diam- 
eter t»y 57 in. stroke, de- 
signed for 78 revolutions 
per minute, and to develop 
about 4,800 hp. each 
with a steam pressure at 
the engine of 230 lbs., 
driving the ship at 14 
knots' speed The boilers 
are of the Xiclausse wa- 
ter-tube type. The entire 
construction of the vessel, 
or vessels— for it is but 
natural to speak of the 
"Minnesota" in the same 
connection— reflects high 
credit upon American skill 
and ability. 













M- 






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^i 








^1 












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1 




^ 1 




h 




1 


1*' "^ 


m 


t ' 


]^^Ll!n 


A 


y 


P 




J 


^^Br'ijEij 




L 


nft 


1 




1 






"''' * S 




mm 


Ml 1 


m 




K 










K« 




si 




1. 





'Built in A.nie«>ica.' 



Compressed Air in Dentistry 



Nowadays no dentist's office is modernly 
equipped without a compressed-air outfit, 
and the number of uses for the air-blast 
found in dentistry is astonishing. Not only 
does it make the dentist's work easier, but it 
also renders it less painful to the patient. In 
a paper read before the Michigan State Den- 
tal Association at Lansing recently. Dr. 
George Zederbaum enumerates the uses he 
has found for compressed air in his own 
office. 

There are two outfits practical for the 
same purpose. One consists of a small pump 
connected by a pulley to an electric motor. 
When the motor is set in motion the pump 
compresses the air into a storage tank 
which, by means of an air gauge, accur- 
ately registers' the pressure of air stored. 
From the storage tank leads the outlet pipe 
guarded by a suitable valve. This, of 
course, requires an electric current. The 
other outfit is in reach of all those in small 
towns as it depends on a water supplj% 
no very high pressure being necessary. The 
air pump iS' attached to the city water-sup- 
ply pipe which keeps the desired pressure 
of air in the storage tank automatically. 
Either apparatus described may be had for 
$25 or $30. 

The compressed air is used for drying 
cavities, which are to be filled, a current 



of air applied for two minutes being suffi- 
cient for cooling compounds used in taking 
impressions and bites, such as wax and 
gutta-percha, and which, because of their 
plasticity, must be applied warm; in treat- 
ing injuries which are hard to reach and 
see, using either liquid applied by means 
of a pointed atomizer tube and the air, or 
powder applied by means of a glass pipe. 
In preparing cavities it is frequently nec- 
essary to blow out the chips and uncomfort- 
able heat is generated by the revolving bur. 
The point of operation may be kept free 
from chips and the bur be prevented from 
heating by wiring a small rubber tube 
around the engine cable down to the hand- 
piece and turning on the air pressure. The 
opening in the tube need not be larger than 
one-thirty-second of an inch. 

F'or deodorizing malodorous mouths, spray- 
ing a solution of lavender or other perfume 
about the room to rid it of disagreeable 
odors, drying up the mouth in bridge or 
crown work, or for connecting to the blow- 
pipe in soldering, the air-current will be 
found equally efficient. By turning it squarely 
into the face of a patient who has taken an 
anesthetic, or one who has fainted after an 
extraction, the patient may be quickly re- 
vided— a pleasanter means than putting 
water on the face. 



60 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Ho\ir Fine Tool-Makers' Files are Manufactured 



For many years there has existed an in- 
herent superstition that the fine files manu- 
factured in Switzerland by a laborious hand 
process could not be successfully competed 
with in this country by the application of 
the speedier American methods. The de- 
mand, both in tliis country and to an ex- 



is of uniform hardness throughout all the 
various lots of files in process of manufac- 
ture. The heat applied is gas, generated 
from naphtha and used in burners. Naphtha 
is best for the purpose because all the sub- 
stances it contains can bo atomized by mod- 
erate force or vaporized under a tempera- 




Fi^. 1. Gas For^e in Use 



tent in foreign countries, for the larger, 
heavier and coarser grades of files used by 
machinists was supplied with the American 
product, l)ut the fine file industry in Switz- 
erland was created of necessity in the man- 
ufacture of Swiss watches and bade fair to 
remain there -exclusively. Now, however, the 



ture below 80 degrees. Also, it contains no 
sulphur or other , element which might in- 
jure the steel and the stock may be sub- 
jected to direct heat at the proper tempera- 
ture. 

Forging the blanks is the first step in the 
process of manufacture. This is done by 




Fi^. 2. THree Sets of Dies for ToT^ixtg tHe BlanKs 



successful manufacture of these fine files in 
this country by machinery which puts out 
an enormous product in much less time has 
introduced a new regime in file-making and 
demonstrated that there is no inherent merit 
in hand-cut files. 

In manufacturing the files the heat treat- 
ment of the steel is most important, as it 
must be done in such a way that the stock 



the use of a gas forge and a Bradley ham- 
mer. (See Fig. 1.) The die used determines 
the rapidity with which the blanks are 
shaped. Three pairs of the dies are shown 
in Fig. 2. The pair at the left is for forg- 
ing the blanks for warding files, the center 
pair is used for half-round files and the 
other pair is ysed in a drop-hammer only, 
for finishing the blanks of half round files. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



61 



The face of each die is in three sections, the 
section on one side being used for breaking 
down the edge of the stock and the one on 
the other side for bringing the edge of the 
stock to about the right dimensions, -while 
the central section is used for forming the 
flat sides or faces of the blanks. All special 
sliapes are finished by drop forging. Brad- 
ley hammers are used for ordinary shapes. 
After the blanks are forged they are 
ready for the annealing process. This is 
done in a gas furnace, the files being placed 
tangs outward so that the delicate and use- 
ful tips will not be subjected to injurious 
heat. The heating process occupies from 
four to five hours, depending on the size of 
the blanks, the files are then allowed to 
cool for twelve or fifteen hours. The blanks' 



the file that no machine work can produce. 
The next operation is the one that has de- 
stroyed the ancient belief in hand-cut files. 
The essential points in cutting a file prop- 
erly are that the blank be of uniform hard- 
ness throughout, the cutter of proper shape 
and adjustment, and the machine adjusted 
to strike a blow of sufficient intensity to 
produce a sharp tooth at the pitch at which 
the file is being cut. Fig. 4 shows the meth- 
od of cutting files by hand, while in Fig. 5 
is shown a row of machines now used for 
the purpose. The blows are delivered at the 
rate of 2,000 or 3,000 per minute, so that 
the cutting is very rapid. When one side of 
the file is cut the blank is turned over and 
the other side is cut. To avoid injuring 
the teeth during the cutting, the blanks rest 




Fie*. 4. Cutting by Hand 

are straightened after being annealed by 
holding for a second over a gas flame and 
subjecting them to a slight pressure in the 
direction required at the same time. 

In grinding the blanks for cutting special 
machines are used. The files are clamped 
to a flat plate which is locked in position 
in a holder in which it fits. "This holder," 
says Machinery, "reciprocates in a vertical 
direction and moves the faces of the files 
up and down against the surface of the ro- 
tating grindstone, the stone at the same time 
having a longitudinal motion crosswise of 
the files." 

The blanks are next finished by draw- 
filing, or "stripping." (Fig. 3.) This is a 
hand process and gives a superior finish to 



Fig. 3. "Stripping" Tile BlanlCs 

on a strip of sheet lead. The work of file- 
cutting is such that hand labor must fre- 
quently supplement the machine work, but 
the quantity of output is remarkably in- 
creased. A method called etching is used 
for forming the teeth of files with very fine 
cuts. This is a hand process in which the 
finished product resembles knurled work 
done on an engine lathe. Minute teeth are 
knurled or milled on the three edges of tlie 
cutting tool— a long triangular bar— used. 
These teeth are of the depth and shape of 
the file teeth to be cut. The file blank is 
clamped in position, or, in the case of round 
flies', is rotated gradually, and the cutting 
tool is passed over the blank in a manner 
similar to the movement of a file when 



(V. 



E N c; Y C T. O P E n I A 



draw-filing. The process is' one requiring 
considerable skill. In the hands of a skil- 
ful workman the knurling tool can be given 
exactly the right angle and the right pres- 
sure, securing teeth of absolute regularity. 

After the cutting px'ocess the number and 
the maker's name are stamped on the file 
and it is sent to the hardening room, where 



it is heated in a gas furnace and cooled in 
brine. Before it is quite cool it is straight- 
ened and is then cleaned by the sandblast, 
in which fine clay powder, which will not 
injure the teeth of the file, is used. The 
product is finally inspected, oiled and packed 
ready for delivery to the customer. Our il- 
lustrations are by courtesy of Machinery. 




Fi^. 5. A R.01V of File-Cuttin^ MacHines 



LOCATING MANHOLE COVERS WITH A 
COMPASS NEEDLE. 



When the iron covers of man-holes are 
covered with ice so that it is difficult to 
locate them, if one knows the approximate 
position of the cover he can soon settle 
the point by means of a compass needle, 
says the American Telephone Journal. 

First hold the needle four or five feet 
above the ground and note the direction 
in which it points— always toward the 
north. Then hold the compass close to the 
ground, walk a few paces from east to 
west parallel with the curb and near the 
spot where the manhole is believed to be. 
Retrace your steps and again retrace, get- 
ting a little farther away from the curb 
each successive time. When you are with- 



in two feet of the manhole the needle will 
begin to deviate from the northward direc- 
tion. The deflection of the needle will in- 
dicate the size of the manhole and help 
make sure that it is the right one before 
proceeding to dig it out of the ice. The 
needle will work just as well on streets 
where there are trolley lines, but if the 
manhole is near an iron pillar of an ele- 
vated structure, some difficulty may be ex- 
perienced. 

If one is mistaken as to the location of 
the manhole, it may be necessary to take 
a new starting point and try again. 



A one-cent telephone call rate has been 
inaugurated by a telephone company in 
Sandusky, Ohio. The rate has made the 
system very popular and a great many slot 
machines are being Installed. 



Facsimile Writing at Long Distance 



Neiv FrencK Apparatus 'WHicK MaKes It Possible to Sign 
CKecK THotisands of Miles Distant 



llia mtrv'ement of ti)« baiicil A forvJc\rd or bovt K Urobeis trje Ho<{ B 
vV^'l t«\nsmits H\« current 

brofiiiis H,e Rpot D * K''':Ktro\n6'7,.Vs 
tl,t curre,r Hiroii^l, E. 




L#on^ Distance Blectric Writing MacHine 



A man can sit in his room in a hotel in 
San Francisco and sign a checli in New 
York, which the cashier of the bank there 
will iionor, when the new device for long 
distance facsimile writing comes into gen- 
eral use. Not only can one send his own 
signature as rapidly as lightning flashes, 
but he can transmit an entire letter or legal 
document, all in his own unmistakable 



penmanship. All the eccentricities of his 
handwriting, the peculiar formation of cer- 
tain letters^ his special habit of dotting "i's" 
and crossing ''t's" will appear with perfect 
accuracy at the further end of the line Pic- 
tures also may be transmitted in the same 
way, and the escape of criminals will become 
more diflieult than ever before. This remai'k- 
able instrument is the invention of a French 



63 



64 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



scientist, Professor Cerebotani. It will copy 
exactly the writing, drawing or marks made 
by a person holding the pencil of the trans- 
mitter. This wonderful instrument produces 
its complicated movements with only one 
wire. 

Any curve may be drawn by the two 
movements made by the sender shown in 
Fig. 1. If the pencil A is moved, either 
backward or forward, it propels the rod B, 
wliich transmits the current tlirough C, this 
constitutes one movement. The other is the 
lateral movement which propels the rod D 
and sends the current through E. A hand 
operating the pencil is shown in Fig. 3. 
Fig. 2 shows the receiver and its connec- 
tion with Fig. 1, the sender. The current 
from E, Fig. 1, produced by the lateral move- 
ment is transmitted to the clockwork, M, 
which propels the rod N and so moves the 
board, O, in a lateral position. In like man- 
ner the current, from C, Fig. 1, produced by 
a backward or forward movement is trans- 
mitted to the clockwork L, Fig. 2, and so 
produces the same movement there. The 
inventor is now working on an apparatus 
which can be used either as a sender or a 
receiver. 

♦ * » 

HOW TO TELEPHONE FROM EVERY ROOM 
IN A RESIDENCE. 



In a number of business places and some 
residences telephone connections making it 
possible to telephone from every room by 
the use of only two telephones have been 
established. In the walls of each room plugs 
connecting with the lead from the exchange 
to the residence are placed. A fixed tele- 
phone does the ringing for the whole house 
and another 'phone is carried by the occu- 
pants of the building to whatever part of the 
house they are engaged in. When the bell 
rings, tlie plug of the movable 'phone is 
placed in the one in the wall and the person 
talks just as well as if he had run down 
a flight of stairs or two. 



IRON-BAND PAVEMENTS. 



A new kind of pavement being tried in 
Germany is called "iron-band pavement," 
and consists of artificial stoi^es of concrete 
held together by iron bands. Where there 
are street car lines, joining stones are laid 
along the rails^ which insure less deteriora- 
tion of the rails and easier motion of wheels 
of vehicles. The pavement is said to be 
very durable, cheap, easily made, free from 
dust and can be used again when torn up. 



WIRELESS TELE- 
GRAPH POLE 212 
FEET HIGH. 



Los Angeles has a 
wireless telegraph pole 
which lifts its slender 
spire 212 ft. into the 
air, just 100 ft. higher 
than any other pole in 
the city. The tall pole 
has been a matter of 
popular interest' and 
during its erection 
crowds gathered daily 
to watch the progress 
of the guying and tlie 
painting; the steeple- 
jack who did the paint- 
ing, appearing very 
small, like a crawling 
insect, to the people 
watching below. 

This pole is a part 
of the first station of a 
wireless line to be es- 
tablished between Los 
Angeles and Puget 
Sound. 

^ * » 

PERILOUS PLACE TO 
SLEEP. 




Tramps are not the 
only ones, it appears, 
who ride in dangerous 
places, out of sight un- 
der cars. Many theatri- 
cal companies traveling 
in their own cars, have 
been using the "tool 
boxes" suspended be- 
neath the floor of the 
car as sleeping bunks 
for the stage hands and 
roiistabouts. In these 
dangerous, cramped and 
coffin-like boxes', little 
more than a foot above 
the rails, the men spend 
a dusty, uncomfortable 
niglit. In case of a 
wreck their location 
means almost certain 
death. Some railroads 
are now refusing to 
haul ears used in this 
manner. 



E N C Y <;; L O P E D I A 



Hft 



Hoisting Heavy Loads WitK Magnets 

Mystezious Operation of An Invisible Po'wer alGreat Time Saver 



A pile of pig iron lay rusting in the back 
yard of a great iron works. There were 
tons upon tons, each block of iron weighing 
several hundred pounds. Suddenly, and 
without any apparent reason, the arm of a 
crane swings over the mass, and a plain 
block of steel descends until it rests upon 
the top of the heap. 

In an instant, like a sleeping army called 
to arms, the inert iron bars awake from 
their lethargy, and climbing over one an- 
other, each endeavoring to be first, cling to 
the steel block until there is no longer room 
for any more. 

No human hand has touched the pile; no 
human form is visible; no explosion or 
earthquake has occurred to explain this 
strange behavior. 

It is all simply the result of touching an 
electric button which set in operation the 
wierd, mysterious workings of a magnetic 
crane. 

Could the intelligent workman of an hun- 
dred years ago have witnessed the scene, he 
would have had little choice between an 
exhibition of the supernatural and the be- 
lief that he had lost his mind. 

And yet the scene described is rapidly 
becoming a familiar one in our large indus- 
trial iron worlcs. in many of which not one, 
but a score of lifting magnets are in con- 
stant daily use. The operation, moreover, 
like many another wonder-producing effect, 
is extremely simple and easy to under- 
stand. 

The block of steel which constitutes the 





SHeet Iron Goin^ "Up 



I^iftin^ Baled Tin 

magnet is suspended from the hook of the 
crane, and becomes magnetic or loses Its 
power, when a direct current of electricity is 
allowed to energize the magnet, or is cut off. 

A flexible twin conductor cable is used to 
convey the current to the magnet and a 
small switch operated by the crane man is 
usually the only additional apparatus nec- 
essary. The amount of current used is 
small, being from one to twelve amperes, 
according to the service for which the mag- 
net is designed. 

In operation, the magnet is lowered upon 
the material to be lifted, and the switch 
closed, thus causing- the magnet to attract 
and hold the material, which may then be 
hoisted by the crane and transported to the 
desired point. By simply opening the switch 
the current is cut off, the lifting block loses 
its attracting power, and the material is in- 
stantly released, being deposited where the 
operator desires. The magnet will support 
its load in mid air for hours, and days and 
even endless years, if only the electric cur- 
rent continues to flow through the two 
small wires. 

Comparing this method of operation with 
the common methods of connecting the load 
to the hook of the crane, with chains, hooks 
or clamps, the saving in both labor and time 
is apparent. The attachment of the magnet 
to the load, as well as the I'elease of the 
load, may be accomplished by the crane 
operator without assistance, thus saving the 
labor of one or more men for prying up the 
material, attaching the hooks and chains 



m 



K N (' V (' LC) 1' K 1) I A 




E nm; yclope di a 



67 



at the point of loading- and additional men 
at the point of delivery for unhooking the 
load from the crane. 

Magnets can be so quickly attached to 
and detached from a load that by their use 
the work which may be done by a given 
crane is greatly increased, in some cases 
more than doubled. It frequently occurs 
that the attachment of lifting magnets to 
existing cranes so increases their capacity 
for handling material that the purchase of 
additional cranes for handling an increased 
output is rendered unnecessary. 

Again, lifting magnets require much less 
head-room than hooks or chains for lifting 
material of considerable width such as 
plates. Therefore, by the use of magnets 
materials can be conveniently piled to a 
greater height in the storage space under 
a given crane than is possible when chains 
are used, thus increasing the capacity of a 
given storage space without altering the 
crane runway or increasing the size of the 
building. 

Lifting magnets may be used to great 
advantage in handling pig iron, scrap, riv- 
ets, bolts, great sheets of steel, and count- 
less metal articles of similar character. In 
the illustrations are shown a few of the 
many operations of the lifting magnets. In 
one pig iron is being raised, in another 
scraps of tin. in others scrap iron and sim- 
ilar material. 

A single design of magnet is not adapted 
to handling the full range of material above 
mentioned, on the contrary the magnet must 
in every case be designed to meet the form 
of material to be handled. For instance, 
there is a wide difference in the design of a 
magnet for lifting ingots or blooms and one 
adapted to the handling of thin plate. A 
magnet which would handle five tons in the 
form of an ingot might not handle five hun- 
dred pounds in the form of thin plates. It 
is therefore necessary to understand in 
each case the operating conditions with spe- 
cial reference to the form and range of ma- 
terial to be handled. 

Magnets are always built and tested to 
from four to five times the specified load, 
special testing machines being employed by 
the makers for the purpose. There are 
some forty types of magnets built for as 
many different kinds of work. The rapidity 
of the operation may be understood from a 
few sample tests. A magnet built to lift 
800 lbs. of pig iron at one time performed 
the operations of lowering the magnet, at- 
taching the load, raising, transferring and 
depositing it at the rate of one ton in three 
minutes. 



For "skull-cracker" work, which consists 
in raising a ball weighing from one to six 
tons and dropping it upon iron castings 
which are to be broken, the magnet system 
is a great saver of time, and the ball can 
be dropped with the same accuracy as an 
expert gunner on a battleship places his sliot 
in a nearby target. 

The evolution from the little red horse- 
shoe magnet of childhood to the great silent- 




Iviftin^ Small Scrap Iron 

ly working hoisting magnets which deal in 
tons, forms another example of how mod- 
ern industries have adapted and and put to 
practical use principles which only a few 
years ago were confined to child's play or 
merely interesting experiments on a very 
small scale in the college lecture room. 



Russia's sunken warships will be raised 
from the deep by three salvage steamers 
chartered at Antwerp by Japan. The steam- 
ers are equipped complete with modern 
wrecking machinery. 



68 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HOW TELEPHONES HELPED THE JAPA- 
NESE. 



During the present war the attention of 
the world has been called to the remark- 
able ingenuity of the Japanese in adapting 
modern devices to their own particular 
needs. Among others the introduction of 
the telephone on to the field of battle is 
most noteworthy, as it has enabled a rul- 
ing head to control the movements of each 
division of an army when scattered over 




Japanese Field TelepHone at tHe 
Front on tKe ShaKo 

many miles of territory. Hitherto in war- 
fare the general plan of attack was prear- 
ranged at a conference of the commander 
and chief with his subordinates. This plan 
they endeavored to carry out to the best of 
their ability, but oftentimes unforeseen cir- 
cumstances would arise which rendered an 
immediate change of tactics necessary, and 
aid-de-camps and couriers were attached to 
the general's staff whose duty it was to con- 
vey his ordei's to one division or another 
whenever he deemed a change of plan ad- 
visable. In cases where the different com- 
mands were in close proximity this method 
was fairly satisfactory, but otherwise it 
was a slow and most dangerous practice, 



and is quite inadequate to the requirements 
of tnodern Avarfare. 

The Japanese army in its operations 
around Mukden was often distributed over 
many miles, and in some of the recent en- 
gagements their fighting line has extended 
to the extraordinary length of an hundred 
miles. Regardless of this their unity of ac- 
tion and concentration of efforts have been 
most conspicuous and they were possible 
only through their ingenious use of portable 
telephone apparatus. Whenever a detach- 
ment of the army entrenched the engineers 
followed, and setting up an instrument soon 
had instantaneous communication with 
headquarters. By this means Field Mar- 
shal Oyama seated at the temporary "Cen- 
tral," was enabled to direct the movements 
of each division of his 450,000 men, dis- 
tributed as they were, with quickness and 
precision. There could be no blundering on 
the part of incompetent subordinates acting 
on their own responsibilities through lack 
of definite orders. Oyama, so to speak, had 
them at his fingers' ends. Did a regiment 
need reinforcements to complete an opera- 
tion; was it advisable to concentrate the 
strength of the army at a certain point in 
the enemy's line, the necessary commands 
were telephoned to the respective parties 
and the maneuvers quickly made. Con- 
trast this with the want of unity among the 
Russian leaders and we need seek no fur- 
ther for an explanation of the present stat- 
us of the war. 

♦-•-•■ 

ANCIENT ROMANS DETERMINED OUR 
STANDARD RAILWAY GAUGE 



Many persons no doubt have stood and 
looked down a railroad track and wondered 
how such an out of the way measurement 
as 4 ft. 8^2 in. came to be adopted as our 
standard railway gauge. It would seem 
that the responsibility for the choice of 
this measurement rests with George Ste- 
phenson, of locomotive fame. AVhile in- 
specting some portions of the Roman wall 
through which chariots used to be driven, 
he discovered that deep ruts had been worn 
in the stone. Upon measuring the distance 
between them he found it to be in the 
neighborhood of 4 ft. 8^^ in., and not doubt- 
ing that the Romans had adopted this gauge 
only after much experience, he determined 
to use it as a standard in the construction 
of his railroads. From that time on this 
measurement has been the standard gauge 
in England and the United States. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 69 

Mining Coal With Compressed Air 



New Radial MacHine \irHicH "Will Cut a CKannel Ia Axky Direction 




Courtesy Ingetsoll-Sergesmt Drill Co. 



THe Radial Coal Cutter 



Seated comfortably on a low stool, and 
directing its operations very much as the 
sighter directs those of a Gattling gun, the 
operator of the latest type of pneumatic 
coal cutter accomplishes the work of many 
men, without any weariness whatever to 
himself. There is as much difference be- 
tween the old, painful way of excavating 
with a pick a seam of coal until ready for 
a "fall," and the machine work with com- 
pressed air as power, as there is between 
the efforts of the ordinary citizen k-ying to 
set up a stove pipe or having it done by a 
furnace man. 

The machine coal cutter is a small engine 
which can be set in any position desired, 
using air instead of steam, and which drives 
a drill or cbisel-shaped tool into the coal at 
the rate of several hundred blows per 
minute. 

As an undercutting machine it is adapted 



for undercutting headings to any desired 
depth at a single setting. It will also shear 
either one or both of the sides of an entry, 
from the floor of the mine to the roof, to 
any desired depth at one setting. The cut 
made is 8 ft. in depth and diminishes from 
a width of 4% in. at the face to about 2 in. 
at the bottom. In the illustration the ma- 
chine is cutting a vertical shear, the point 
where the drill strikes being frequently 
changed by turning the small crank shown. 
The hose-pipe conveys the supply of com- 
pressed air which comes from a compressor. 
The workman at the right is cleaning out 
an undercut. 

♦ *» 

Thirty-one of England's old battleships, 
the original cost of which was $15,000,000, 
have been sold at auction for $680,000. The 
vessels cannot be sold to a foreign power, 
according to the terms of the sale. 



70 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CHIMNEY BUILDING FROM A DERRICK IN 
CANADA. 

The accompanying engraving is from a 
pliotograpli of a bricli cliimney erected 
by R. Corrick & Sons, for the new plant of 
the Sarnia Gas and Electric Light Co. The 
chimney is of red brick, built on a concrete 




foundation 9 ft. deep by 17 ft. square, and 
is 12 ft. 6 in. square at the base and con- 
tinues the same form and dimension to a 
height of 28 ft. Above that it is of octagonal 
form 97 ft. high, vidth an outside diameter 
at the top of 11 ft. and finished with a 
cement cap, making the total height from 
foundation, 125 ft. It is provided with a 
double wall to the height of 74 ft. 10 in.; 
28 ft. of which is of fire brick, and the bal- 
ance of ordinary brick, between which and 
the outside wall there is ample air space. 
The inside diameter is practically 6^/^ ft. 
throughout the entire height. The derrick, 
as seen in the photograph, was built its 
entire height before the chimne3- was com- 
menced, and all material was hoisted up 
inside it. It is one of the largest chimneys 
of its kind in Western Ontario.— Contributed 
by A. E. Kaiser, Sarnia, Canada. 

^^»^ 

WILL THE MISSISSIPPI BE HARNESSED? 



A bill has been introduced into Congress 
granting a franchise by which a company 
will have the power to do with the Missis- 
sippi what has already been done at Niagara. 
Should this bill pass it is the intention of 
the men interested to build a large dam 
across that river between Keokuk, Iowa and 
Hamilton, 111., and construct an enormous 
power plant which will develop a much 
larger horsepower than that obtained from 
the present plant at Niagara Falls. This 
plant with the dam is expected to cost in the 
neighborhood of $6,000,000 and will provide 
power for all towns within a radius of sixty 
miles. The dam, when built, will be nearly 
5,000 ft. long and 35 ft. high and will be in 
complete control of the United States gov- 
ernment. 

^-»~^ 

JAPANESE JINRICKSHAS MADE IN 
AMERICA. 



iBuildin^ a CHiinnes' From a 
PerricK 



It is not generally known that the .iinrick- 
sha, the national vehicle of Japan, is manu- 
factured in the United States and shipped in 
large quantities to the East. But so it is, 
and by constant redesigning and the appli- 
cation of various modern improvements the 
jinricksha has become in detail at least more 
American than Japanese. The vehicles are 
very light, being made for the most part of 
wood with wheels of steel tubing, manj^ of 
which are equipped with rubber tires. Jin- 
rickshas, though generally considered pecul- 
iarly a Japanese carriage, are also used in 
somewhat modified forms in China, South 
Africa and the Philippine Islands. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



71 



RAZORS MADE OF COPPER. 



PARCELS CARRIED BY STREET CARS. 



The remarkable claim is made of tlie dis- 
covery by a Xova Scotia blacksmith, of a 
process for hardening copper to such a de- 
gree that It will take an edge suflBcient to 
be used as a razor. 

American Consul Halloway, at Halifax, 
writes: "A razor has been made of the 
hardened copper with which one can shave. 
Having been made in a blacksmith shop the 
razor is necessarily crude, but the blade is 
hard and carries a sufficiently sharp edge 
to remove superfluous hair The inventor 
says he can harden copper to any desired 
degree of hardness " 



Parcels are carried on the street cars in 
Manchester, England. The district covered 
has been divided into two districts, an inside 
zone including the city of Manchester, and 
an outside area including the suburbs; and 
parcels are delivered to all parts of the dis- 
trict covered at intervals not longer than 
15 minutes The charges are as follows: 
Inside area, parcels not exceeding 14 lb., 
4 cents; 28 lb., 6 cents; 56 lb., 8 cents; 112 
lb., 12 cents For the outside area the 
prices for the same weights are, respectively, 
6, 8, 12 and 16 cents. The ''inside area" 
has a population of 800,000 people. 



THe "Caronia" No\ir tHe Largest Vessel 
in tHe World 





Si S. "Caronia" L>eavin]g 

Standards of size in the big liners that 
jtly the seas change rapidly. But a short 
time ago the "Baltic" was announced as the 
'•largest vessel in the world;" before the 
"Baltic" the "Cedrie" and the "Celtic" to- 
gether held the palm; now all of these are 
eclipsed in size by the huge Cunarder 
"Caronia," which has recently made her 
maiden trip across the Atlantic from Liver- 
pool to New York. 



Port on ber First Trip 

The "Caronia" is a twin-screw vessel 675 
ft. long, 72 ft. 6 in. breadth, of 30,000 tons 
displacement and having a speed of 19 
knots— two knots speedier than the "Baltic." 
She has eight continuous decks, on six of 
which passengers are carried. The vessel is 
handsomely fitted up and has accommoda- 
tions for 2,650 passengers, which, with a 
crew of 450, make a total of 3,100 persons 
she is able to carry. 



72 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




S. S. "Caronia*'»DecK Rises Upon DecK 



In the construction of the vessel 12,000 
tons of steel were usedj a great number of 
the plates being 1% in. thick, 32 ft. long 
and 5% ft. wide and riveted with 1% in. 
rivets, the riveting being done with hy- 
draulic pressure. In all, 1,800,000 rivets 
were used. 

The reciprocating engines' used in the ves- 
sel are of great size and strength. The total 
height from the center of the shafts is 30 
ft., and from the base of the bed plate 36 
ft. The diameters of the respective cylin- 
ders are 39 in., 541/2 in., 77 in. and 110 in. 
The latter, with one exception, is the larg- 
est cylinder yet adopted for vertical en- 
gines. The stroke is 5 ft. 6 in., and the 
length of the connecting rods iS' 12 ft. be- 
tween centers. 

The two engines are separated by no 
longitudinal bulkhead and make an impres- 
sive appearance when running at 90 revolu- 
tions. 



THE CAPE COD CANAL. 



The building of the canal from Buzzards 
Bay to Massachusetts Bay wnll soon be under 
way. This canal will traverse a distance of 
7 1-3 miles together with approaches aggre- 
gating 41/^' miles and will occupy more than 
three years in building. It will be construct- 
ed by the Boston, Cape Cod & New York 
Canal Company. 



HOW TO REPRODUCE PHOTOGRAPHS IN 
WATCH CASES. 

Any workman accustomed to enameling 
can reproduce photographs on watch cases 
by following carefully the outlines of the 
process as given here. 

Prepare the cap by coating with trans- 
parent frit so that it appears as if coated 
with transparent lacquer. The picture is 
produced by the "dusting in" or "powder" 
process. Take a good negative, the actual 
size the picture on the watch case is to be, 
and provide a piece of plate glass of suit- 
able size. Rub the surface of the glass with 
powdered talc, but leave none of the pow^- 
der on the glass. Prepare a solution com- 
posed of 60 gr. of pure, clean bits of gum 
arable; 45 gr. glucose; 10 mm. glycerine; 30 
gr. bichromate of potash; 2 oz. distilled 
water. Mix, warm and filter through mus- 
lin. Flow a film of this mixture evenly over 
the plate glass and dry it in the dark. Ex- 
pose the film-covered surface of the glass 
under the negative for a length of time 
Avhich must be ascertained by experiment. 
Then carefully protect the coated glass from 
the action of light and take it to a cellar or 
some other place where the air is moist and 
it can absorb moisture in proportion to the 
action of the light. All portions screened 
from the light receive the most moisture, 
and these portions will best take and hold 
any dry powder brushed over the surface. 



ENC YCLOPEDIA 



7J 




LfiK* tKe Stories of a Great Ofiice Building 



No dust will adhere where the light has 
acted in full force. 

For the dust use dial painter's black. 
This is intensely black glass ground to a 
powder so fine it is impalpable. Brush it 
dry over the face of the print with a camel's 
hair brush. Remove all particles except those 
which are held by the tacky surface. Very 
beautiful and perfect positive pictures are 
produced in this way. 

To transfer the picture to the cap of the 
watch flow a coating of tough collodion 
over the picture on the glass and allow it 
to dry. Then separate the collodion film 
from the glass and wash away the coat of 
gum and dextrine. Place the positive pic- 
ture, collodion side out, on the watch case 
and heat the cap in a muffle. The collodion 
will burn away and the black enamel pig- 
ment will fuse and incorporate itself with 
the transparent glaze on the watch cap. 



TORPEDO-BOAT DESTROYERS. 



The torpedo-boat destroyer has made a 
great record in the present war. The Japan 
Times says; "The great service rendered 
by our torpedo-boat destroyers in the pres- 
ent war is almost incomparable, the suc- 
cesses attained in robbing the enemy of 
fully half of his moral and material 
strength in the very first engagement, in 
taking the principal part in the work of 



maintaining the blockade, and in making 
themselves the ears and eyes, hands and 
feet of the great fleet, in carrying out the 
reconnoissances, orderly and intelligence 
services— all these being placed to their 
credit." 

The Asahi says: "The destroyer is a par- 
ent-excelling child born of the torpedo-gun- 
boat as father and the torpedo-boat as 
mother, and as a late comer in the field she 
has yet had no opportunity of showing her 
worth until the present war, which has 
proved her wonderful capacities." 



TRAMWAY TRACKS 2,500 YEARS AGO. 



The first railroad track was constructed 
by the Greeks as far back as 600 B. C, or 
2,500 years ago. The tracks were construct- 
ed through the mountains on the road to 
the temple at Delphos and were to guide 
the wheels of the wagons bearing sacrifices 
and sacred vessels thither. Had an accident 
happened to the wagons en route it would 
have been an ill omen and a sign of the 
gods' displeasure, hence the tracks. 

These tracks were two parallel grooves 
about 3 in. deep and 4 ft. 9 in. apart. The 
cart wheels traveled in the grooves which 
were cut with great precision. Parts of 
these tracks may still be seen in various 
localities in Greece, 



74 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MOTORCYCLES FOR MAIL COLLECTION 
IN BUDAPESTH. 



HOW COTTON UNDERWEAR IS KNIT. 



Mail collection by motorcycle is declared 
by the Austrian minister of posts and tele- 
graphs to be a success both as to time and 
money-saving. 

The motorcycle shown in the engraving- 
has a hood to protect the mail from the 




Courtesy Austrian Kialster of Posts. 

Postal Motor Tricycle 

weather and as it is in tricycle form it is 
easily managed by one man. 

These vehicles, of whicli twenty-two were 
first installed, cost $380 each. The twenty- 
two tricycles make about 93,205 miles a year. 
The cost, as compared to the method- of 
horse and wagon collection, shows a marked 
saving, and tlie gain in time is considerable. 

The ministry lias decided to further en- 
large the service by increasing the number 
of both tricj'cle and quadricycle machines. 

The collectors are required to clean their 
own machines, but repairs are conducted by 
skilled men employed by the department. 



ALL NIGHT DINING CAR. 



The railroads are constantly studying to 
devise new things with which to please 
their patrons. The very latest is the all 
night dining car which the Illinois Central 
has put on its midnight trains between Chi- 
cago and St. Louis. If you wake up in the 
night and feel the gnawings of hunger all 
one need do is press the button and forth- 
with be fed, 



Modern machinery nowadays enters into 
nearly every department of the making of 
cotton underwear, from the winding of the 
3'arn upon cones to the actual knitting of the 
goods and the cutting of the finished cloth. 
The j^arn arrives at the knitting mills in car 
loads and is stored in a house built especially 
for the purpose. If not already on cones it 
is taken to the large winding machines and 
placed in charge of an operator who is capa- 
ble of handling forty cones. The j^arn is 
then ready for the knitting machines, one 
operator being in charge of four machines. 

These knifing machines are almost human 
in their activities, 800 to 1,000 needles work- 
ing at once from eight to sixteen bobbins 
and automatically changing the style of the 
work as it knits a cuff and then the full 
width of the sleeve. It is a system of both 
horizontal and perpendicular needles. Some 
of the machines are used for the knitting of 
sleeves and others knit the cloth for the 
body of the garment. The machines can be 
so adjusted as to Ivuit either union suits or 
separate piece suits and the same machines 
are gauged to the many different sizes of all 




IVHere Parts of Garments are As- 
sembled and Seamed 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



75 




Automatic Kn 

garments. The cloth comes from these ma- 
chines in a long seamless webb. In one of 
the accompanying photographs fifty knitting 
machines are shown. 

After the cloth comes from these machines 
it next goes to a reversing machine at which 
the long strips are turned inside out ready 
for the fleece lining process, which is accom- 
plished by means of two kinds of rollers 
alternated, one of wires laid slanting 
and others standing straight. Some of the 
finer grades of goods are not fleeced. There 
is a reversing machine for the sleeves and 
another for the body of tlie garment. 

The long webbs of cloth are next cut up 
into the parts for separate garments by 
means of an electrical machine which will 
cut twenty-four thicknesses at one time. 
There are some kinds of garments, however, 
which have to be cut by hand. Once cut in- 
to the desired lengths they go to the sewing- 
machine girls who put them togethei', after 
which the seams are smoothed out by ma- 
chinery. The garment is now ready for the 
finishing touches such as the crocheting of 
the edges, the making of the button holes 
and the sewing on of tlie buttons. The sub- 
sequent operation of pressing is done upon 
a large machine equipped with successive 
iron plates which in some instances are heat- 
ed and in others are not. 

^ « » 

A telegra.m from New York to Chicago 
travels over 24,000 miles of wire. 



ittin^ Machines 

FRENCH CRANE AND LADLE. 

A French builder has constructed a new 
type of combined locomotive, crane and 
ladle for use in a Bessemer plant. The 
power is steam generated in two upright 
boilers on the car. One set of cylinders 




L>aille Crane for Steel "WorKs 

propel the car: another set work the crane 
through the medium of hydraulic power. 
Two men are necessarj- to the operation of 
the machine, one to run the car and one to 
operate the crane and ladle. 



Diamonds, a great wealth of them, may 
l)e hidden in that part of Canada between 
the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay, declares 
Dr. Ami of the Canadian geological survey. 
Surveying parties and explorers are in- 
structed to be on the look-out for any traces 
of the gems. 



7fi 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



KITE FLYING FOR BUSINESS, PLEASURE 
AND LIFE-SAVING. 



Day and Night'Sky Signs— Handbills Distributed 
in Mid-Air— Progress of the Art 



By Edward E. Harbert 



Kite flying is no longer boy's play; it is a 
business; and a business in wbich ttie com- 
pensation is not only dollars, but precious 
human lives. 

I was an electrician in Chicago at the time 
I first began to study Idtes and their opera- 
tion, and was led to do so on account of the 
numerous skyscrapers. For many years I 
ran wires for telegraph and other purposes 
in all parts of the business district. It was 
hard enough work at any time, but when 




Harbert and His Kite 

the fifteen and twenty-story skyscrapers 
sprung up, our difficulties were immediately 
multiplied. One day after all other means 
had failed to get a wire between two very 
inaccessible points, I rigged a kite and in a 
few minutes accomplished what ten hours 
hard and extremely dangerous work had 
failed to accomplish. After that I used kites 
right along, and became so interested in 
their possibilities I finally devoted my entire 
time to tlie work. 

The kite subject commanded almost as 
mucli interest at the St. Louis fair as the 
balloons although the press of the country 
paid little attention to the contests. In tliis 
connection it is interesting to note that the 
first and second cash prizes for kite work 



were awarded to one other mechanic and 
myself against the "professonal" kite fliers, 
men whose names are well known in this 
and other aerial work. In one of my demon- 
strations there I maintained for longer than 
the specified time, a kite at an angle of 43 
deg., with 1,500 feet elevation. 

After experimenting with all the many 
types of kites I prefer a flat Ivite, something 
like the Malay, of a size 6 ft. high and 6 ft. 
wide, and without a tail. This shape kite 
can be worked tailless by making two pock- 
ets witli holes in each, and placing one on 
both sides of the backbone and al)ove 
the cross-sticlc. The covering I prefer is 
nearsilk, but any similar material will 
answer. Tlie kite complete, including the 
two sticks, weigiis only 1 lb., and is col- 
lapsible, folding into a space 3 ft. long and 
3 ft. wide. One of these kites Avill, in only 
a light wind, carry up a ball of strong cord 
1,500 ft. long, whicli can be dropped at any 
desired moment over a point 2,000 ft. distant 
from the Ivite operator. I have repeatedly 
demonstrated the effectiveness of this de- 
vice (see Fig. 1) as a means of carrying a 
line from a la lie steamer to the shore. 

For heavier work fly your kites in tandem 
at distances of 500 ft. apart. With five such 
lutes in tandem, and using a correspondingly 
heavy kite line, a body weigliing 60 lbs. can 
be carried to a height of one mile and main- 
tained there as long as the Avind holds. For 
this work a securely anchored windlass is 
necessary to let out and take in the kite 
line Avhicli must be tlie size of a small clothes 
line. 

I believe the time will come when every 
vessel and every life-saving station will be 
supplied with a kite outfit for passing a line 
between the shore and stranded vessel. Usu- 
ally in near shore wrecks the wind is toward 
the land, making it very easy to carry a cord 
to shore, wliich establishes connection be- 
tween the two. A lieavier line and finally a 
life line can then be drawn to the vessel. 
If the wind is off shore the same resu:lt can 
be had, but requires a little more time, as a 
vessel a half-mile out is a comparatively 
small mark in a gale; but it can be done. 

The commercial side of the work lies at 
present more in the nature of sky signs, 
which are becoming more general each year. 
A briglit banner 30 to 50 feet long, floated a 
thousand feet or more above a place of busi- 
ness, and announcing special sales, openings, 
etc., never fails to attract attention. The 
air is free, there is abundance of room, and 
the expense is not great. In some cities 



E .\ C Y C LOPE 1) I A 



professional kite fliers are making time con- 
tracts for this work, tlie charges being so 
much per hour while the banner is in sus- 
pension. For night work specially built 
.•searchlights are used to "spot" tlie banners, 
thus bringing the words out in bold relief. 

A recent novelty is the wholesale distribu- 
tion of hand bills or circulars which are sent 




Fi^. laaTivo Views : Upper Closed ; 
L>o^vex> Open and Ball R.eleased. 
Device is Fastened on I^ine Near 
Kite. 

up and released where and as often as de- 
sired. The distance these announcements 
will travel when dropped from a height of 
a thousand or more feet is surprising. The 
same apparatus by which this is done can 
be used to work the shutter of a camera. 
The device is very simple and will, I think, 
be understood from the illustration, and can 
easily be made by anyone. 

There are two ways to release in mid-air. 
In Fig. 1 two views are shown of the same 
device. The upper view shows a device to 



be fastened to the kite by giving the kite 
line a turn around the two buttons. The 
device should be attached when say from 
200 to 500 ft. of the kite line has been let 
out. The sketch shows the manner of at- 
taching something to be released later on. 
A ball of twine for instance, such as would 
be used in flying a line from ship to shore. 
In the sketch the size of the ball is made 
very much smaller in proportion in order to 
leave room to show the arrangement. In the 
lower part of Fig. 1, the wire has been re- 
leased, the ball has dropped, unwinding as 
it fell, and one end remains fastened to the 
device which is in turn fastened on the kite 
line. Instead of a ball of twine a package 
of bills could be hung and released in the' 
same way 

The release is effected by a "traveller" or 





Fi^. 2>*Xrippin^ MecHax\ism o£ tKe 
er.** Tikis is a Part of the Device ( 
out tHe "W^in^s) Shoivn in Fi^. 3. 



Fi^. 3— TKe "Traveler.** IVlngs as 
Open to Ascend ox^ Kite L>ine ; 
IVin^s as Closed to Returix to Op« 
erator. 

trolley shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, which 
runs on the kite line suspended from the two 
small grooved wheels shown in Fig. 2. The 
two wings carry the traveller up until it 
strikes the trip in Fig. 1, when it releases 
the burden carried by Fig. 1, and at the same 
time works the trip in Fig. 2. This allows 
Fig. 2 to drop anything which it may carry, 
and also lets the two wings close on their 
hinges, when the traveler, no longer offering 
any resistance to the wind, slides down the 
kite line to the operator. It can then be 
loaded and sent aloft, the op- 
eration being repeated indefi- 
nitely. 

The traveler as well as the 
device shown in Fig. 1 is made 
of light wood and pieces of or- 
dinarily stiff steel wire which 
anyone can bend with a pair 
of pincers. 

As an outdoor recreation, 
kite flying is one of the most 
fascinating and inexpensive of 
sports, and when once a per- 
son takes it up he is sui'prised 
to find how much there is to it 
and how great are its possi 
bilities. 



Travel- 
but -writlk- 



78 



E N C Y L O P K I) I A 



THE ENGINEER'S CAB ON SOME EURO- 
PEAN RAILWAY LINES. 



The American engineer in liis cosy cab, 
protected from tlie fierce elements and suffi- 
ciently comfortable that his mind need not 
dwell on the requirements of his body, but 




*'£n^ii\eer and Stoker are Exposed 
to tHe Lashing Rain" 

is free to concentrate itself on the control of 
liis iron steed, the perspective of glimmering- 
rails ahead, and the signals' he must watch 
for, is far better off tlian many of his brother 



engineers on European lines. The illustra- 
tion shows the cab of a locomotive which 
hauls a fast express between Calais and 
Paris, France. Only in recent years lias the 
protection for stoker and engineer been even 
so much as shown. As it is thej'' are exposed 
to the lashing rain and sleet. The other 
occupants of the cab are Prince Ferdinand of 
Bulgaria, and M. Morizot, the chief engineer 
of the line. 



The potter's wheel is probably the most 
ancient of mechanical devices. In China 
and Japan a simple form, differing but little 
from that used in Egypt 4,000 years ago, is 
still used for shaping porcelain ware. 

■♦ • » 

NEW FRENCH CRUISER OF 40,000 HORSE- 
POWER. 



There will soon be launched in the ship- 
yards at St. Nazaire, France, the French ar- 
mored cruiser "Ernest Renan." Though the 
length and displacement of this vessel is 
but little in excess of many of the cruiser 
type now being built here and abroad, its 
horsepower is enormous, indicating 40,000. 
The ship is 515 ft. long, 72-ft. beam, with 
a draught of 27 ft. and a displacement of 
13,644 tons. The armor belt is 12i/4 ft. wide 
and 6% in. in tliickness, and the ship is 
designed for a coal capacity of 2,300 tons. 
A comparison with our own cruiser Wash- 
ington, the keel of which was laid in 1903, 
will be instructive. Tliis vessel is 502 ft. 
in length, 73-ft. beam, with a drauglit of 
26 14 ft., and a displacement of 14,500 tons, 
but its coal capacity will not exceed two 
thousand tons and it will indicate only 
23,000 horsepower. 




THis Cruiser Has 40,000 Horsepoinrer 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



I'Srl 



Motor Iceboatin^ THe Coming Winter Sport 



S]»e«cl of lOO Miles and More an IIotir>>Ne\ir and Kxcitin^ Sport for 
^^inter MontHs to R,eplace Autos and LratincHes 




TKis Boat Made Over 40 Miles an Hour 



Over the frozen waters of the lake it 
speeds— the v,'onderful iceboat of the winter 
of 1905-06. It started from the shore with 
a careful calculating motion, as though it 
would measure the course whereon its pow- 
ers were to be displayed. With a gliding 
spring it rose easily over the bumps and 
ridges of ice near the shore and then, with 
a sudden acceleration of speed, made its 
way out on the glittering, fascinating sea 
of glass. Faster and faster it goes, and 
its course is as steady as the flight of a 
homing dove. A giddy ice-yacht with a 
cumbersome spread of sails is just ahead, 
and its course is uncertain, depending on the 
fi-eak of the vrind, but the iceboat, under 
perfect control, steers clear of the yacht, 
and flies past like a meteor impelled of 
some celestial sphere. The occupants of the 
two vessels call out a gay greeting, but the 
iceboat is gone so quickly that only the wind 
catches the full intent of the words. From 
a speed of 40 miles the number has in- 
creased to 50— 75— and even 90 miles an 
hour. The eyes of the driver are fixed on 
the little mechanism that records the speed. 
Steadily— surely— it increases, until at last 



the little indicator has reached the 100-mile 
point and remains there without a flicker. 

Undoubtedly, iceboating is the coming 
winter sport. During the past winter hard- 
ly a man or boy, near a frozen body of 
water of any size, in either this country or 
Canada, who did not try to rig up and use 
some form of ice-craft. Many of these were 
successful, and the records made on the 
northern lakes and rivers with ice-yachts 
were surprising. Now, however, comes the 
motor iceboat, the invention of F. M. Un- 
derwood, of Toledo, Ohio, and promises to 
eclipse all precedent in the sport. The ex- 
periments were taken up too late to be car- 
ried out entire during the past winter, but 
the first boat successfully constructed made 
a speed of 40 miles an hour, demonstrating 
that the principles were alright and that, 
with some changes and greater -power, a 
boat capable of making 100 miles an hour 
was easily possible. 

The craft illustrated was not completed 
until late this spring and only a few oppor- 
tunities to use it were possible before the 
ice on Lake Erie became unsafe. This was 
a great disappointment and Commodore 



80 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Underwood (for he is commodore of the 
Toledo Yacht Club) is impatiently waiting 
the return of another winter. The boat is 
12 ft. long, 40 in, wide at the bow, tapering 
to a sharp point at the stern. The runners 
are sheet steel. The steering runner io 
controlled by a tiller and works the same 
as on a sail boat. The sheet steel or dash- 
board is to protect the machinery and pas- 
sengers from deadly blows from pieces of 
ice which fly up from time to time, for 
meeting a nice bright chunk of ice at 40 
miles an hour is not at all desirable. The 
engine is set cross-wise in the boat instead 
of the line shaft running fore and aft as in 
a propeller launch. The driving wheel is of 
steel, 36 in. in diameter, with 12 spokes, the 
face of the wheel being 2 in., set with 96 
sharp pointed spikes 1 in. high. These 
spikes are not placed directly opposite each 
other, but are "staggered," which gives a 
better hold. The driving wheel is hung in a 
V-shaped frame, the two open ends being 
hinged securely at a point opposite the en- 
gine shaft. The other ends unite and are 
fastened to a strong vertical spring which 
holds the wheel firmly to the ice, but at 



the same time is sufficiently yielding to al- 
low the driver to ride over reasonably large 
obstructions without danger of breaking it 
or upsetting the boat. The locking lever 
operates a clutch^ which throws the driving 
chain in and out of action at will. 

The entire construction will be so readily 
understood from the above description and 
the illustration that our readers will have 
no difficulty in constructing a motor ice- 
boat in good season for next winter, and 
those Avho already own either an auto or a 
small launch can remove their engines from 
the summer service and install the same 
power in a winter craft . 

The new boat now under construction will 
differ from the other in that it will have 
two drive wheels, one on each side, and be 
equipped with a four-cylinder 10-h.p. gaso- 
line engine. Power will be transmitted by 
a regular automobile chain and an auto- 
matic spring on the runners will cause them 
to raise, should the boat strike an open 
sheet of water or weak ice, without the at- 
tention of the driver. The boat will thus 
ride over the spot without injury to either 
machine or occupants. 



Gravel Pumped LiKe Water 




THis Plant IViU I^ift lOO Yards of Gravel a Day 



Pumping gravel like water through a large 
iron pipe may seem a strange and unique 
proceeding, but this is what is actually be- 
ing done in certain districts in Indiana. 
Great difficulty has always been experienced 



in road building, but the new method prom- 
ises to put an end to this. A six-inch pump 
is used, driven by a 15 h. p. engine, and 
three men are necessary for its operation. 
A plant of this kind has a capacity of lift- 



in obtaining gravel from river beds for use ing over 100 yards of gravel a day. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



8] 



Remarkable Success of tKe Cleveland Roll- 

ing( R.oad 



A moving roadway ascending a steep liill 
at ttie rate of four miles an liour and bear- 
ing witti it heavily laden teams and vehi- 
cles of all kinds, is the sight which now 
greets the astonished visitor to Cleveland, 
Ohio. Moving sidewalks have been much 
talked of and experimented with, but it 
has remained for engineers of that city to 
successfully, apply the principles of their 
construction to a roadway and put it into 
every day use. 

This rolling road, as it is called, is 420 
ft. long and rises 65 ft. in that distance, 
the ground traversed being a steep incline 
in Factory street hitherto shunned by all 
teamsters because of the difficulties of its 
ascent. But these have now been overcome 
by this novel invention. The heaviest loads 
are driven on to the rolling road at its 
lower end, the huge belt is set in motion, 
and in three minutes the team has reached 
the top of the hill without any effort on 
the part of the horses. 

The roadway consists of a long moving 
platform eight feet wide made up of heavy 
boards arranged crosswise and divided into 
trucks of two boards each to give pliability 
to the structure. These boards are metal 
bound and are fastened together with metal 
links. The belt so formed is extremely 
heavy, weighing 99 tons, and turns upon a 
drum at each end rotated by means of 
chains and sprockets, there being several 
idlers to support the roadway as it returns 
on the underside. Two safety cables ex- 
tend the entire length of the belt and at 
short intervals links pass up through the 
road from them to which the wagons are 
clamped to prevent their slipping. The 
road is operated by four electric motors 
controlled from a cabin at the summit. 

The rolling road is equipped with suffi- 
cient power to carry all the wagons which 
can be driven upon it at one time and its 
average daily capacity is estimated at 600 
vehicles per day. The charge for trans- 
portation varies from ten to twenty-five 
cents per trip, depending upon the kind of 
vehicle and the loading, and as the use of 
the road means a saving of fully fifty min- 
utes in time to the teams of the surround- 
ing warehouses it will not want for patron- 
age. Passengers are also carried at the 
rate of two cents per person. 

This roadway has proved so great a sue- 




Easy to Mount tHe Steep Orade 

cess that Col. Isaac Smead is now engaged 
in designing a more elaborate structure 
which will be operated over a viaduct spe- 
cially constructed for the purpose in an- 
other hilly street in Cleveland. 



An electric elevator is soon to be installed 
in the grand Cathedral at Berlin, for the ex- 
(iusive use of the German emperor. An ele- 
vator in a church !s quite unusual, but a 
private elevator is even more of a novelty. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



GUNPOWDER VAN USED IN ENGLAND. 



SELF-PROPELLED RAILWAY PASSENGER 
COACHES. 



In conveying gunpowder and other ex- 
plosives the great rislv assumed by the rail- 
way makes it imperative that the means of 
conveying it be perfectly adapted to the 
purpose. Our illustration shows a 7-ton gun- 
powder van, which the Locomotive Maga- 
zine, London, says is used on the North 
British Kailway. 




For Cox&veyin^ GunpO'Wiler 

The inside dimensions of the car are 
length, 15 ft. 8 in.; width, 7 ft. I1/2 in.; 
height 6 ft. 3% in.; the wheelbase is 9 ft. 
and the distance from the rails to bodj^ is 
3 ft. 1 in. The underframe and axles are 
of steel, the wheels of wrought-iron and 
the body and roof are built of mild steel 
plates, angles and tees. Inside, the body 
is wood, cased with yellow pine boards. 
These are secured with brass screws with- 
out projections. To a height of 2 ft. above 
the floor the doors, sides and ends are lined 
with lead sheets fastened with flat-headed 
copper nails to the wood casing, all joints 
being soldered. 

The locks, hinges and bottom fastenings 
of the doors ai'e of brass and tlie hinges 
and socket for the top door fastening are 
secured with brass bolts. Thus no iron or 
steel part comes in contact with any other 
part made of these metals and wherever 
iron or steel work comes in contact with 
wood it is well coated with white lead oil 
paint. Thus there is hardly a chance by 
which a spark of fire could be emitted by 
friction. The van is painted vermilion, 
A'arnished, has no A'entilators and is abso- 
lutely dust-proof. 



Single passenger coaches speeding across 
our prairies and hills, from city to city 
and supplanting the arrogant locomotive 
almost entirely for local passenger service, 
may be the next great innovation in rail- 
way motive power departments. Railway 
engineers all over the country are turning 
their attention to the possibilities of the 
internal combustion motor for directly driv- 
ing passenger coaches and thus doing away 
with locomotive, smoke and dirty coal ten- 
der, and meaning as well a reduction in 
labor. 

A passenger coach designed along these 
lines and directly driven by a gasoline motor 
has been built at the Omaha shops of the 
Union Pacific railroad and will be used for 
local passenger service at Portland, Ore. 
This is the first serious test of the kind 
The coach, which lias seating capacity for 
25 persons, is mounted on specially designed 
trucks, liaving 42-in. wheels and the con- 
struction of the whole is very strong. The 
roof is fitted with ventilators and the floor 
is watertight, so that it can be flooded and 
cleaned readily. Acetylene gas is used for 
illumination, and an acetylene headlight is 




R.ecttxires No Locomotive 

mounted at the front of the car. The coach 
is shaped to offer the least resistance pos- 
sible. The car is heated by a system of 
piping Avhich is arranged to cool the jacket 
water of the motor also. The motor sup- 
plies power for a speed of 40 miles an hour. 
Compressed air is used for starting the car, 
liandling the brakes, opening and shutting 
the doors and lowering ^and raising the 
step from the driver's compartment. This 
s;tep aiTangement keeps passengers from 
alighting before the car has stopped and so 
prevents accidents. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



83 



"AfixetopHone" Makes Open-Air Concerts WitH 
tHe GramopKone Possible 



Before the summer is over, the people 
who throng to our parks and summer pleas- 
ure resorts of evenings may be privileged 
to hear the voices of all the great singers 
of the world and the finest orchestral pio- 
ductions, as well as the voices and words 
of many great and distinguished persons 
they may never chance to see. All this is to 
be brought about— not by the much maligned 



magnet as indicated, is connected directly 
with the gridiron, and so the air emission 
varies with the vibration the gridiron re- 
ceives from the contact of the needle on the 
record. The apparatus is very simple and, it 
is said, wholly successful. A library of the 
voices of famous people is being made up by 
the controlling company and will be offered 
to the British Museum. 




'THis Attachment Enables tbe GramopHone to Sound as LrOtid as a Full 

Brass Bana." 



phonograph— but by the gramophone fitted 
up with a special attachment called an 
"auxetophone" which increases the volume 
of the gramophone and enables it to sound 
as loud as a full brass band in the open air, 
says the Illustrated London News. 

Tlie auxetophone is the invention of the 
Hon. Charles Parsons and consists of a "grid- 
iron" or "comb" which is attached at the 
small end of the tapered arm of the trum- 
pet. Air is forced by a pump or motor 
through an open tube, A, extending from the 
gridiron and passes through some wadding. 
The emission of this air from the gridiron 
'r, controlled by a row of slots exactly in 
front of which the gridiron is placed. The 
needle, C, which is held In place by a 



HOW SPIRIT PORTRAITS ARE PAINTED 
BY GHOSTS. 



A recent expose of fraudulent spiritual- 
istic mediums brought out the interesting 
details of the process by which "ghosts" 
paint "spirit portraits." 

The patron or "sitter" who desires to hare 
painted the portrait of a departed friend is 
received in tlie sitting room on an upper 
floor; on the floor below is stationed the 
ghost— an expert photographer. A photo- 
graph of the dead person is given by the 
sitter to the first medium, who wraps it in 
several folds of tissue paper— so there will 
be no chance of fraud— and passes it over 
her brow. As she does so a series of raps 



84 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



begins to sound on the table near the second 
medium. Tliese raps are made by the thumb 
nail of the second medium, but the sitter 
cannot detect it. Naturally the sitter turns 
to No. 2, who declares she is in communica- 
tion with the spirit and tells the sitter to 
put his hands on the table to establish the 
current. The duty of No. 2 now is to hold 
the sitter's attention. While No. 2 is thus 
engaged No. 1 drops the photograph through 
a slit in the floor near her, to the "ghost" 
below. The "ghost" makes a negative of 
the photo, rewraps it in the tissue and 
passes it back to the medium. It is done in 
less than two minutes. There are more 
messages and finally the spirit— the model of 
the painting— is there. Through the medium 
the spirit bids, the sitter come again Thurs- 
day as he cannot get into communication at 
the present time. 

In the interval between the next sitting 
the "ghost" makes an enlargement of the 



photograph on sensitized canvas, paints it 
over and also makes ready a blank canvas 
exactly like the canvas on which the por- 
trait is made. 

When the sitter comes back communica- 
tion with the spirit is again established. The 
blank canvas wrapped in tissue paper Is set 
up in the window. Medium No. 2 again holds 
the emitter's attention with fraud messages, 
and while she does No. 1 substitutes the com- 
pleted portrait for the blank canvas. When 
the sitter turns the painting shows dimly 
through the folds of tissue. Again and again 
No. 2 holds his attention by conversing with 
the spirit— and each time lie turns the pic- 
ture shows brighter— successive layers of 
tissue having been torn off in the meantime 
by No. 1. At last all the remaining paper is 
torn off and there is revealed a perfect por- 
trait of a spirit painted by a spirit. Of course 
the sitter is willing enough to pay a good 
price for such a wonderful manifestation. 



WarsKips Converted Into Gay Floating Hotels 




''n t 




The Transformed BattlesHips VTould I^ooK I^iKe This 



Floating hotels— a whole flotilla of them— 
decked with gay streamers, fitted up with 
every accommodation that would appeal to 
lovers of the deep and anchored in the 
beautiful Kyles of Bute. This is the picture 
conjured up by an English artist who has 
suggested to the British admiralty the plan 
of converting their disabled battleships 
into floating hotels, and so create a new, 



and in all probability, profitable source of 
revenue, instead of selling the ships for a 
nominal sum. 

The artist suggests converting the fighting- 
top into a band stand, training vines up the 
masts and many other attractive features. 
The plan would afford a delightful means 
of spending a summer outing and would 
doubtless be highly popular. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

MacHine for Writing SHortKand 



85 



Frencb Invention IVhicH May^ Revolutionize Present System of L>eam- 

in^ SHortHand 



Shorthand cau now be written on a ma- 
chine. For many years there have been at- 
tempts made to construct a machine for this 
purpose, and while several inventions have 
been made and put upon trial they have not 
come into general use. However, a French- 
man, M. Bivort by name, has recently brought 
out a machine which he calls the steuophile 
and which promises to be of the greatest 
value, inasmuch as it is capable of practical 
use for all business purposes and is quali- 
fied to supplant the present method of writ- 
ing shorthand by hand. 

Recognizing the necessity of having a ra- 
tional alphabet which would contain the 
greatest number of sounds in the fewest 
signs, M. Bivort has' designed an alphabet 
in which all similar consonant sounds are 
consolidated, and has constructed a system 
of syllabic writing by means of which tlie 
operator is enabled to attain the speed of 
shorthand Avriters of to-day. Following the 
phonetic principles used in present systems 
he has combined several of the consonants, 
such as B and P, F' and V, T and D, etc., 
tht!S reducing the number of keys necessary 
to twenty, ten for each hand. There are two 
intermediate keys, one for the aspirate H, 
while the other moves the paper forward. 
An accessory key moves the carriage for the 
writing of numbers and signs much on the 
order of the upper case key in the single key- 
board typewriters. In appearance and gen- 
eral plan of construction the stenophile is 
very similar to a small typewriter, but the 
arrangement for holding and feeding the 
paper is manifestly different, it being placed 
on the machine in a large roll and gradually 
unwound from one spool to another. 

The speed of the machine rests, of course, 
upon the skill of the operator, but however 
rapid the action the legibility of the writing 
is unimpaired. It is claimed that with a 
week's practice an average pupil can write 
fifty words a minute from dictation, and 
that at the end of two or three months he 
will easily attain a speed of from 125 to 
150 words a minute, tlie speed of the com- 
petent business stenographer of to-day. 

One of the greatest difficulties with short- 
hand as now written is that the writer is 
usually the only one capable of reading his 
notes, and if he is hard pressed the rapidity 



of his writing distorts the characters so 
much that lie himself often experiences dif- 
ficulty in their transcription. By the use 
of the stenophile this difficulty is removed. 
The characters as written are constant in 
form and are easily transcribed by all who 
understand the basis of the system, so that 
one person may be emploj^ed in doing noth- 




TaKin^ Notes in Sbortl^and by- 
Machine 

ing but taking speeches or letters, as the 
case may be, and others in transcribing 
them. 

The stenophile so far has only been ap- 
plied to the French language, but it is eas- 
ily applicable to all others, and we may 
expect to see it introduced into business 
houses all over the world as a companion 
to the typewriter in the near future. 



REMOVING GLASS STOPPERS. 



C41ass stoppers sometimes occasion even 
more difficulty than coi'ks iti their removal. 
An almost infallible cure for a fixed stop- 
per is to grasp the bottle in the left hand, 
and with the thumb press against the 
offending stepper, while with the right hand 
T'cntly tap against this pressure, using the 
handle of a knife or other hard instrument. 
In this way gradually work round the stop- 
per, which will quickly become loose enough 
to be extracted. 



86 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



GRAVEL 



ELEVATING AND 
MACHINE. 



SCREENING 



AERIAL YACHT DUMONT'S LATEST. 



For handling gravel the outfit shown in 
the illustration is most efficient. It digs 
the sand and gravel from the loose bank, 
elevates and screens it so as to give two 
products, casting all large stones or tailings 
off on the ground beside it. 

The outfit consists of an elevator and 




Elevates and Screens Gravel 

revolving screen mounted on a flat car. 
The elevator is composed of buckets mount- 
ed on an endless chain. It is placed to one 
side of the car and extends 2 in. below 
the track level and projects 6 in. in front 
of the car. In operation the car is run 
directly to the face of the bank and a 
man stationed at the top of the bank can 
easily keep the elevator supplied with the 
loose material. The gravel is spouted from 
the elevator to the revolving screen in the 
center of the car, where the smallest of it 
falls through a fine wire screen, thus sepa- 
rating the sand. This screen is set at an 
angle and all that. will not pass through 
it falls by gravity to a second wire screen 
of larger mesh. The gravel passes through 
this screen and the tailings fall over the end 
and are spouted to the ground. 

The sand and gravel are discharged by 
belt conveyers from the machine into two 
dump cars placed ajongside. The machine 
is driven by steam power generated on the 
car. 

# « » 

A German chemist has invented a method 
of manufacturing fluid gas from the 
residuum of petroleum and heavy mineral 
oils. The inventor claims it can be manu- 
factured cheaply Avhore there is an abun- 
dance of petroleum and can be transported 
in cylinders. 



"My aerial yacht," says Santos-Dumont, 
"will soon start on its first cruise. Beneath 
the egg-shaped balloon, slightly less elon- 
gated than my No. 9, will be seen hanging 
what looks like a little house with a balcony 
AvindoAV running half its length on each side. 
The balcony window will be the observation 
room of the floating house, and in it the 
motor will have place. Behind it is a closed 
sleeping room, while in front you will see 
an open platform holding the steam produc- 
ing boiler. Steam can also be led by means 
of a pipe to the open room for cooking and 
the closed room for heating purposes. 

"As the floating house is designed to re- 
main for days at a time in the air, protection 
from cold may become important; therefore 
the closed room can be made quite tight to 
retain tlie heat. It is like a whole car com- 
posed of a framework of pipe, aluminum 
and wire tightly covered with varnished bal- 
loon silk of manjr thicknesses. It will con- 
tain two cot beds, in which my guests may 
remain at ease." 

Santos-Dumont foretells that the airshii) 
Avill be a successful opponent of the subma- 
rine boat. 



TO LOOSEN RUSTY SCREW. 



One of the simplest and readiest ways 
of loosening a rusted screw is simply to 
apply heat to the head of the screw. A 
small bar or rod of iron, flat vt the end, if 
reddened in the fire and applied for two 
or three minutes to the head of a rusty 
screw, will, as soon as it heats the screw, 
render its withdrawal as easy Avith the 
screAvdriver as if it were only a recently 
inserted screw. This is not particularly 
novel, but is Avorth knowing. 



HOW TO SOFTEN PUTTY. 



Putty which has become hardened by ex- 
posure, as around window sash, may be 
softened and readily removed by the use 
of the following mixture: 

Slake three pounds of quickstone lime in 
water and add one pound of pearlash, mak- 
ing the whole of about the conisistency of 
paint. Apply to both sides the glass and 
let it remain for 12 hours. At the end of 
that time the putty will be sufficiently soft 
so the glass can be lifted out of the frame. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 87 

How Portland Cement is Manufactured 



Huge Rolls CrusK 5-Ton RocRs— Rotary Kilns 150 Feet Long- 
Hoiv tlie Fuel is Pulverized 



A large plant for the manufacture of Port- 
land cement lias recently been completed and 
put in operation at Hull, P. Q., Canada, just 
opposite Ottawa, where, there is abundance 
of the necessary raw materials. The plant 
has a capacity for 2,500 bbl. of cement per 
day, and involves a number of new features. 
An electric cableway, with a 1,200 ft. span, 
is used for conveying the raw materials 
from the quarry to the crushing house, and 
the machinery throughout the plant is elec- 
trically driven by powerfiil motors. The pro- 
cess of manufacture employed is known as 
the dry process, and involves the use of huge 
rotary kilns for burning the cement. Each 
of these kilns, in this ins'tance, weighs 150 
tons. The stone crushers of the plant will 
crush about 175 tons per hour. 

The process through which the raw ma- 
terials, commonly cement rock and lime- 
stone, ijass in the manufacture of Portland 



cement in a large modern plant, is unique 
and interesting in the extreme. The two 
materials are found close together and 
loosened largely by blasting, though much of 
the material is so soft it can be shoveled out 
by steam shovels working on a railway. 
From the electric cableway the loaded skip 
is lowered into the crushing house to a plat- 
form, 50 ft. or more above the floor and op- 
posite the mouth of the hopper, above the 
main crushing roll. The contents of the 
skip are discharged into the hopper by elec- 
tric power, and the empty skip returned to 
the quarry. 

In one typical plant of the kind the first 
pair of crushing rolls are 5 ft in diameter 
and 5 ft. long, and have crusher faces of 
cast-iron plates covered with projecting lugs. 
These rolls are capable of crushing a single 
rocic weighing five tons. The speed of the 
crushers is about 250 revolutions per minute. 




One of tHe 150-Ton Kilns Loaded on Flat Cars 



ENCYCLOPEDIA. 




Tbe Electric Cable^vay 

From these huge rolls the crushed rock drops 
into a 10-ton hopper below, whence it is 
fed through three sets of 36 in. rolls and 
passes through the last set reduced to % in. 
and less in size. On being screened all 
tailings from the crushed rock are returned 
to the crushing house and recrushed. 

From the lowest set of rails the crushed 
rock drops through a chute upon a 24-in. 
belt conveyor, which carries it upward, at 
a speed of 500 ft. per minute (the speed of 
all the conveyors at this plant), to the 
top of what is called the "drier house." 
Here the material falls by gravity over 
screens of V2 in. mesh. All that will not pass 
through— the "spalls"— is recrushed and re- 
turned to the drier house. Material passing 
through the screens falls to the drier. This 
drier consists of a cast-iron box 40 ft. high, 
8 ft. square and filled with baflfle plates. 
The fall from the last screen to the bottom 
of the drier occupies just 25 seconds. The 
capacity is 3,000 tons per day. An 80-in. 
exhaust fan driven by a 60-hp. motor draws 
out the gases at the top of the stack and in 
the way of economy these are passed 
through the dust-settling chamber, thence to 
the atmosphere. By this drier process the 
percentage of moisture in the crushed rock 
is reduced to about one per cent from the 
original four or five per cent. The gases 
on emerging from the stack have a tem- 
perature scarcely above 212 deg. F. 



From the bottom of the drier stack the 
crushed stone is carried by a belt conveyer 
up an incline to the transfer tower and is 
delivered to another belt conveyer, and an 
automatic sampler draws samples as the 
rock passes from the one conveyer to the 
other. This sampler is a most ingenious 
piece of mechanism. It is a broad plate 
hinged something like a damper, and at 
stated intervals it is thrust forward into tlie 
material taking a 1-lb. sample at each thrust. 
It is withdrawn by means of a weight. It 
acts in accordance with the speed of the con- 
veyor as it is only thrust forward in re- 
sponse to an escapement mechanism belted 
to the conveyor shaft. 

On the second 24-in. conveyor the rock is 
carried down the full length of the stock- 
house cupola and by means of a self-pro- 
pelled tripper deposits its load in bins, a 
number for each of the two materials, and 
an extra bin for mixing. Cement rock and 
limestone are mixed bj' discharging the con- 
tents of these bins upon belt conveyors run- 
ning in a tunnel beneath. From the stock- 
house the tunnel conveyors bring the crushed 
rock to the first dump at the upper part of 
a weighing house where there are two 300- 
ton bins, one for cement rock and one for 
limestone, and a 10 -ton weighing bin beneath 
each of these, in which the proper propor- 
tions of the materials are secured. 

At what is known as the "chalk" grinding 
house, material is ground between sets of 
rolls to an exceeding fineness. These rolls 
have a compression of 1500 lbs. per square 
inch and handle about 300 bbls. ot 
material per hour and about 86 per 




Ball Mills For Grinilini£ Clinker 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



89 




Installinst R.otary Kilns at tHe Neiv Cement Plant at Hull, Canadi 



cent of the ground material passes tbrongli 
a sieve having 200 meshes per linear 
inch. The ground material is conveyed 
to a blower house, where the finer is 
separated from the coarser. Entering at the 
top of the blower house, the belt conveyor 
passes two stationary trippers, each of which 
takes off its proportion of the load and re- 
places the rest. The material they take is 
supplied to the discharge pipes of sixteen 
fan blowers. The material, falling through a 
system of baffles and transversely through 
the current of air maintained by the blowers, 
the finely ground is carried into the settling 
room where it settles into bins but the coarse 
falls by gravity through the current of air, 
instead of being conveyed by it, and is sent 
back to the grinding house. From the set- 
tling room bins the chalk is conveyed to the 
chalk storehouse. The walls of the settling 
chamber are of coarse gunny sack, and much 
of the machinery throughout the plant is 
protected Avith this material. 

From the chalk stockhouse, which is of 
1,000 tons' capacity, the chalk is conveyed by 
a long screw conveyor to a belt which leads 
to the kiln house. 

The burning of material in the huge rotary 
kiln is the most interesting process involved 
in the manufacture. The kilns used nowa- 
days exceed in size anything that was seen 



four or five years ago. Time was when a 
steel kiln 6 ft. in diameter and 60 ft. long 
was considered a monster, but this large 
plant uses cast-iron kilns 150 ft. long and 9 
ft. in diameter. These kilns, of which there 
are sixteen in the plant we are describing, 
are supported on 30 wheels, called "idlers," 
at 15 points of their length and revolve at a 
speed of about one revolution in 45 seconds. 
Power is supplied by geared motors midway 
of the kilns. The rotaries are inclined and 
are held in place by two thrust wheels bear- 
ing against turned rings encircling the shell. 
The output of each kiln is about 750 bbls. 
per day of 24 hours, and less than 75 lbs. of 
fuel is used per barrel of product. The fuel 
used is XJulverized soft coal which must be- 
especially prepared for the purpose. It is 
first put through what is called a "grizzly" 
in which the larger pieces are crushed, it 
then goes to a drier house where steam colls 
drive heated air through the drier stack at 
the rate of 30,500 cu. ft. per minute. From 
the drier the coal falls into a storage hopper 
and is taken by a screw conveyor to the 
coal grinding house. Here it passes through 
a tube mill and comes out in a finely pulver- 
ized state and is conveyed to a fine coal 
storehouse near the roaster. This fine coal 
is fed into the lower end of each kiln by 
means of compressed air. 



90 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



The chalk as it descends through the kihi 
reaches the stage of incipient vitrification 
and forms clinker, the heat to which it is 




Section of Ball Mill 

subjected being most intense. Sometimes it 
becomes wliolly vitrified and collects in rings 
and obstructs the flow. A peculiar means 
is taken to again open the kiln. A naval gun 
operated by compressed air is loaded with a 
ready-made cement slug about 1% in. diam- 
eter and 15 in. long and discharged into the 
kiln, breaking up the rings of glass within. 
At the lower end of the kiln the clinker 
drops out into a cylindrical revolving cooler. 
Air drawn through the cooler serves to 
cool the clinker, and as it passes over the 
hot clinker is heated, and this warm air is 
admitted to the kiln. The cooler rotates just 
as the kiln does; it is, however, set at a 
greater inclination and the clinker passes 
through more rapidly. From the cooler the 
clinker drops into a bucket conveyor from 
which it is spouted to what is called the 
"bad clinker" elevator and which discharges 
upon the pavement outside the roaster house. 
The clinker is then conveyed to the grinding 



house where it is first reduced in size by ball 
mills and then pulverized by tube mills. 
The proper amount of plaster of paris not 
exceeding two per cent is added after the 
crushing in the ball mill. This is to retard 
the setting of the cement. The ball mill 
grinds it by means of loose tumbling balls of 
steel carried in a rapidly revolving drum. 

The tube mill reduces the clinker to the 
market fineness of which 92 per cent must 
pass through a 100-mesh sieve. The tube 
mill consists of a steel plate cylinder, pro-, 
vided with a driving gear and lined 
with hard iron, silex or porcelain bricks. 




For CrtisHi^ii Coal 

Material is fed at one end through a hollow 
trunnion and discharged at the other end. 
The mill is filled to a point a little above its 
axis with material and pebbles and made to 
revolve, causing the mass of pebbles and 
material to tumble about, upon and over 
each other with wave-like undulations, pro- 
ducing an enormous grinding surface' capa- 
ble of reducing to any desired fineness with- 
out screening any dry material subjected to 
its action. 

The pulverized cement is finally put 
through a second blower house which sepa- 
rates all coarse particles from the fine and is 
then stored until such time as it shall be 
put on the market. 




R-otary Drier 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



91 



DISINFECTING FILTER FOR HOSPITAL 
SEWAGE. 



ENGLISH STEAM OMNIBUS. 



By Dr. Maurice Budwig 



Sewage from hospitals, carrying witli it 
germs of all manner of contagious and in- 
fectious diseases, is a menace to the public 
health and may at some far removed spot, 
contaminate whole communities. Germs of 
many diseases live through all extremes of 
weather, some of them for years, as in the 
case of the typhoid germ. 

The only precaution against diseases being 




Filter for Hospital Seiva^e 



carried in this manner from hospitals is the 
thorough disinfection of sewage. My ap- 
paratus for this purpose consists of a cop- 
per tank into which the vessel containing 
sewage is placed and the tank filled with 
water. A powerful gas burner is arranged 
beneath the tank and brings the water to 
a temperature of 212 degrees F. The water 
is allowed to boil one minute and both ves- 
sel and contents are thus thoroughly disin- 
fected. 

A 2-in. valve at the outlet of the tank al- 
lows the contents to escape through a trap 
into the sewer, so that there is no chance 
of further infection. By turning the water 
valve the tank and vessel are cleansed. 

^—¥ 



An excellent quality of soft coal is found 
in the Indian 'Territory. The 116 mines pro- 
duced 3,320,057 tons last year. The four 
coking plants coked 50,000 tons. 



The latest steam omnibus has been built 
for the London Road Car Co. It is of 32 hp. 




London Steam *Bus 

and kerosene is used for fuel. The vehicle 
seats 34 passengers and is of the double deck 
type. 



A car door fell from a freight train o)i 
the Southern Ry. so that it rested on botli 
rails. The locomotive of a passenger struck 
it and the locomotive and tender were 
thrown down an embankment, killing the 
engineer, fireman and a flagn.an. 



NEW SUBMARINE TELESCOPE. 



RT? 



It is believed that in many cases a sub- 
marine telescope 
would avoid the 
necessity of a 
diver going down. 
Where a search is 
to be made, or 
where the diver 
must first locate 
an object before 
going to work up- 
on it, the sub- 
marine telescope 
is calculated to 
save a great deal 
of time. It can 
'be used at any 
depth to which a 
diver can safely 
descend. The 
viewing tube is 
made in sections 
which are added 
as the lower end of the tube, which con- 
tains the lens, is let down. In order to 
secure sufficient light at the bottom an elec- 
tric lamp securely inclosed in a strong glass 
case is attached. When the light is turned 
on the water is illuminated and easily ex- 
plored. 




92 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



"Woiiderful Discovery in Pliotography 

Portraits in Colors by a Purely^ PKoto^rapHic Process— Nega- 
tive Partly Developed Under Stinli^Kt 



Among all of the investigations and dis- 
coveries that have recently been made rela- 
tive to the phenomena of light in connec- 
tion vfith photography, the experiments of 
Mr. J. Ellsworth Hare, a Chicago photo- 
grapher, are 'showing some of the most 
promising practical results. While photog- 
raphers all over the world have been at- 
tempting to discover methods of photograph- 
ing in colors or of producing colored photo- 
graphs by one process or another, this young 
man has actually succeeded in producing 
portraits in colors by a purely photographic 
process. These portraits bear a distinctive- 
ly poster character in appearance and, al- 
though the process has only been perfected 
within the past few weeks, the new style 
colored photographs are already command- 
ing high prices among the members of Chi- 
cago's four hundred. 

The process of maldng the "poster por- 
traits in colors," as the inventor calls them, 
is a printing process, the result being 
brought about by a double exposure to the 
light and a triple manipulation of the chemi- 
cals. The photograph is made on a thin 
metallic plate, very light in weight, which 
is prepared by a complicated system of coat- 
ing before it is ready for printing. 

The first coat is of a collodion nature, 
containing the double salts of silver. After 
this coating has been allowed to dry over 
night in a dark room, it is recoated with a 
heavy coat of specially prepared and sen- 
sitized bicromate solution, in which enougli 
black carbon pigment has been added to 
make the solution perfectly opaque. The 
plate, when thoroughly dry, is ready for 
printing. 

An ordinary portrait negative such as is 
used by all photographers is used to print 
from. Although the operation of placing the 
sensitized metallic plate in contact with the 
negative must be done in the dark room, 
the printing is done in the sunlight. The 
first exposure is determined by time. 

After the first exposure has been made the 
plate is removed to the dark room, where it 
undergoes a process of washing in hot water. 
This removes the opaque substance, or outer 
coating, from the high light part of the 
photograph, leaving the high lights and half- 
tone portion of the underneath coating free 
to the action of light for the next exposure 
and the shadows remaining perfectly blank. 



The plate should then be thoroughly dried, 
when it is ready for the second exposure. 

This exposure is made by artificial light, 
the time of which can only be determined by 
the printer's judgment. The plate is then 
ready for the toning bath, which is to pro- 
duce the desired color. The different colors 
are produced by the use of a series of ton- 
ing baths, the chemical combinations of 
which are a secret of the inventor. Tlius a 
variety of shades from bright red to pink 
and from pale green to deep yellow are ob- 
tained in the high lights and throughout 
the half tones. This leaves a striking photo- 
graph in two colors, the high lights standing 
out from the blaclc with marvelous effect, 
which makes the person photographed ap- 
pear to be seated in a dark room with a 
flood of strongly colored light of the se- 
lected tint falling upon him. 

Photographs of even greater effectiveness 
than those already mentioned are obtained 
in tliree colors by the same process, with the 
exception that colored carbon pigment is 
used in the bicromate solution in place of 
the black employed in the original process. 
This gives the shadow in one color, the high 
light in another and the half tones in a third 
color, which is produced by the presence 
of one color overlj'ing another. 

The metallic plate is used for two reasons. 
First, it acts as an opaque backing, which 
prevents tlie action of light on the inner or 
first coating from the back. Secondly and 
most important of all, the plate, having a 
hard surface, prevents the coatings from 
sinking in as is the case with photographs 
made on paper. This produces a photograph 
of a luminous quality. The latter effect con- 
stitutes one of the chief beauties of the new 
style of color photography and is a distinct 
innoA^ation in the photographer's art. 

The discoverer of the process explains his 
invention as an inspiration wliich came to 
him after dreaming over an idea and ruining 
scores of plates while experimenting during 
the past four years. 



Little oak boxes are placed on some of the 
tombstones in Paris, and their purpose is for 
receiving the cards of those who visit tlie 
graves, that the friends of the deceased may 
know whom else holds the departed in loving 
remembrance. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA C)3 

River Boat Made 1,000-Mile Ocean Voyage 




TKe "H. C. Grady" on The Tempestuous Pacific 



When the "H. C. Grady," a river steam- 
boat formerly navigating the Columbia river, 
was sent down the Pacific coast to San 
Francisco bay last season, in response to a 
demand for flat-bottomed river steamers, 
seamen along the coast prophesied she would 
never make her destination in safety and the 
chances against it were so great that her 
crew deserted. The river boat in construc- 
tion is not at all adapted to ocean naviga- 
tion. The "H. C. Grady," a staunchly-built 
little craft 125 ft. long, 26 ft. beam and 26 
in. draft, looked entirely out of place on the 



tempestuous Pacific. The guards of the craft 
were scarcely three feet out of the water, 
and the flat bottom somewhat less under 
water. The cabins and pilot house lowered 
high in the air and offered a fine broadside 
to squalls. The stern wheel enhanced the 
difficulties, as when the bow dipped the stern 
flew up and increased the strain on the en- 
gines. 

Nevertheless, with a crew of landlubbers 
under command of Captain Denny, the boat 
made the 1,000-mile ocean voyage in just 
five days without disaster. 



DAKOTA LIGNITE FOR IRRIGATING 
WORK. 



The production in great tracts of North 
Dakota land can be increased ten fold by 
means of irrigation. The U. S. Geological 
Survey, in a comprehensive report, recom- 
mends a plan for doing this. Great beds of 
lignite are near the surface, and crop out 
from hillsides. With suitable pumping ma- 
chinery water from rivers and creeks can be 
raised 100 or more feet and easily distributed 
over the level plains. The lignite is very 
easily mined. 

•♦ « » 

HOW TO MAKE A STORM VENTILATOR. 



The ventilation of a room in stormy weath- 
er in stich 
manner 
rain or 
cannot 
■ in and 
curtains 
carpets 

be effected by 
a very simple means, says the Physical 
Culture Magazine. 




that 

snow 

blow 

spoil 

and 

may 



Build a box with one end and one side 
open, using 'i^-in. boards (preferably 
matched), and making it n'ust large enough 
to fit the sides of the window frame close- 




Exterior Vie-w 



Iz^terior Vie-w 



ly. The box may be of any depth desired, 18 
in. is a good average. Paint, cover or stain 
the box to make it sightly and then adjust 
in the window as shown in the illustrations. 
The box need only be used in stormy 
Aveather, being removed entirely during fair 
weathex'. The current of air it admits to the 
room m'^y be increased or decreased by al- 
lowing it to extend farther out on the out- 
side, or by drawing it farther into the room. 



94 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Hour Gas and Electric Meters Work 



One of £acK Type Bxjtlained "Will Make Others Easily X7nclerstoopd«> 

Many Very Ingenious 



Two types of gas meters are in use, the 
wet meter and the dry meter. Figs. 1 and 2 
show the most important parts of a dry 
meter. In Fig. 1 is represented a cross-sec- 
tion of the tinned case having apartments 
0, D, E, and F. In apartments C and D are 
^isks fastened together by flexible leather, 
L, forming a sort of bellows as in an accor- 
deon. Piston and valves are represented at 
]Sr. Suppose gas to enter at H, Fig. 2. Its 
pressure opens valves into Q which expands, 
driving the gas out of the chambers C and 
D into the consumer's pipe. As the bellows 
empty, the chambers refill. The amount Q 
will hold is known. Keferring to Fig. 2, end 
view, N transmits the motion of the bellows 
to the shaft, S, which in turn moves the 
dial gear wheels, causing the hands to regis- 
ter the amount of gas passed in. B is a 
chamber containing levers and the dial 
mechanism. 

Figs. 3 and 4 refer to a wet meter, Fig. 
3 showing a front view and Fig. 4 the in- 
terior arrangement at the back. W repre- 
sents the water level, water being put in 
at U. Too much water will overflow through 
V. A is a sheet metal cylinder. Within 
this revolves another cylinder on an axis. 
This cylinder is divided into four chambers. 




A, G, J, and K, having four outlets, 1, 2, 
3, and 4. Gas enters around the axis and 
flows up through the tube T which reaches 
above the water line, W, into the chamber 
K. Its lightness causes the inner cylinder 
to revolve in the direction of the hands of 
a clock. The chamber K fills, revolves, then 
empties through 4, just as G is doing through 
1. This rotation is transferred by tV:. axis 
to a gear wheel, X, Fig. 3, and by the shaft, 
S, to the dial wheels, and is registered, the 
capacity of each chamber being known. This 
continues until the consumer's pressure is 
equal to that of the gas main, when the 
meter stops until the pressure again lessens 
in the consumer's pipe. Too high or too low 
water causes a float, G, to rise or fall, thus 
shutting off the gas until the meter is ad- 
justed to read correctly. 

Wet meters freeze and require more at- 
tention than dry meters and are less used. 
Dry meters should be frequently examined, 
as the leather will become hard and brittle 
with age. 

To read the register. Fig. ^, of a gas meter, 
proceed as follows: 

Dial "A" reads "6" because it has not yet 
reached "7." Dial "B" reads "7" for a like 
reason, and dial "C" reads "7." Put down 




Fi^. 1. 



Dry Gas Meter 



Tig, 9 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 





Fig. 3 



-Wet Gas Meter 



Fig. A. 



these figures, namely, 677, and add two ci- 
phers, because the lowest, "C," dial repre- 
sents hundreds. Thus you have 67,700 cubic 
feet. Subtract from this the figures of the 
last month's reading, ending say 65,000, and 
you have what you must now pay for, 2,700 
cubic feet. 

An electric recording wattmeter is really 




A B C 

Fig. 5— Gas Meter Dials 

an electric motor. To understand how it 
works, let us suppose a current of electricity 
to flow in a wire, F'ig. 6, in the direction 
of the arrow. Experiment has shown that 
this wire will then be surrounded by a 
force which electricians call a field, or "lines 
of force," sometimes likened to rubber bands. 
This same strange force appears between the 
opposite poles of two magnets, as in Fig. 
7, and in order to talk about it we will use 
the terms "field" or "lines of force." Sup- 
pose in Fig. 7 we are looking at the end of 
two wires, A and B, joined at the other end. 




The lines of force will run straight across 
from S to N if undisturbed. But send a 
current in at A and out through B and a 
field, rubber bands if you wish, forms, turn- 
ing in the direction indicated by the respect- 
ive arrows. These two fields tend to bend 
the lines of force running from S to N in 
the manner shown. At the same time, the 
S N lines try, like stretched rubber, to re- 
main straight, lifting B up and pushing A 
down. Fasten these two wires to a center 
and we have the armature of a motor. In 
the wattmeter instead of one loop of wire, 
the armature is made up of a number of 
loops of fine wire which are wound length- 
wise of a spool on the shaft. In place of 
the S and N poles of magnets, the watt- 
meter has two fixed loops or coils of heavy 




Fig. 6 



wire. Fig. 8, and through these the current 
(amperes) to the consumer passes, making 
many, few, or no lines of force according 
as he uses much, little, or no current; and 
making the armature turn slow or fast as 
did A and B, Fig. 7. The armature is con- 
nected across the circuit coming into the con- 
sumer's house to get the effect of the electric 
pressure (volts). Combining the effect from 
the current coils, and that from the arma- 
ture, the wattmeter reads amperes x volts = 
watts. 



96 



E N C Y C L O P K 1 ) I A 



An additional loop of wire called a shunt, 
Fig. S, is wound on the current coils to give 
enough added lines of force to make up 
for friction. Friction is slight, the shaft be- 
ing set in jewelled bearings as in a watch. 
Sometimes too much current flows through 
the armature, even with no load. This makes 
the armature turn and is termed "creeping." 



SHU/VT 
CO/L 




TO L//ve 



Fig. 8 



It can be stopped by taking some of the 
wire out of the shunt coil. 

As the shaft revolves a set of gear wheels 
are turned, registering on the dial the num- 
ber of watt hours (watts x hours.) A watt- 
meter is tested by putting It on the same cir- 
cuit with a reliable instrument, or on a 
known load. If it runs too fast the poles 
of the magnet, which act as a drag on a 
copper or aluminum disk, are brought far- 
ther from the axis, giving more leverage; 
if too slow they are moved toward the axis. 

Wattmeters read either in watt-hours or 
kilowatt-hours. Referring to the register, 
Fig. 9, dial A has not registered; dial B reads 
"5" because it has not reached "6;" dial C 
reads "4;" dial D reads "2;" and dial E 




Fii(. lO. Watt Metev 

reads "7." Putting down these figures gives 
5, 6, 4, 2, 7 watt-hours, or dividing by 1,000, 
gives 56.427 kilowatt-hours. Take from this 
the figures of the last reading paid for, say 
46.427, and you now pay for 10.000 kilowatt- 
hours. 

The hands on the adjoining dials revolve 
in opposite directions, hence a reading should 
always be verified, as it is easy to mistake 
the direction of rotation. 

^ * » 

While excavating for the new Pr-ris sub- 
way, the main postern and drawbridge of 
the Bastile was discovered. The gate is to 
be reconstructed on the Avenue Henri IV., 
where part of one of the towers of the fam- 
ous prison fortress has been set up for a 
number of years. 



toooo 



/ooo 



100 




J OOOOC 
Fi^. Q. Hoiv to Read tHe Dials of a 'W^atttneter 



Examining Bombs by X-I^ays 

Perilous Occupation Uses Science to Save L/ife< 
Experts Work in Underground R.ooins 



Not alone as a means of examining the 
interior anatomy of naan is ttie X-ray a life 
saver; it is now employed to show what 
is inside the most dangerous and deadly 
bombs. On the continent of Europe the po- 
lice department of all the large cities has 
one or more experts whose hazardous busi- 
ness it is to open and examine the bombs 
which are from time to time sent to mem- 
bers of the royal families and high officials. 



to resemble a book, for instance, and so con- 
structed as to explode when the package 
is opened. These are the most dreaded, for 
it is not easy to hurl a contact bomb with- 
out being seen; and the intended victim 
may as likely as not be elsewhere when the 
clockwork machine is due to explode; but 
the package sent by mail or express will 
do its work weeks and even months after 
it has been closed and delivered. 




Entrance to Underground Chamber 



These infernal machines are of all de- 
scriptions, some being designed to explode 
by any sudden jar, others operated by clock- 
work mechanism which if not interi*upted 
will cause an explosion at a pre-determined 
moment; while still others are inclosed in 
th& most innocent looking packages madte 



The bomb experts are among the highest 
paid members of the force, and their iden- 
tity and work is guarded with great se- 
crecy. When one of them pays the penalty 
with his life the event is often never knoyyn 
outside of a few trusted oflScials of tfee' -de- 
partment. 



97 



98 



E N C YCT. () P H: I) I A 




Fig. 1 — Interior of Infernal Machine containing 
bomb sent by mail to Russian Ambassador. 
Paris, as revealed by the X-ray. Short black 
lines are nails Mith which the box was made. 
Fig. 2— Photograph of exterior of Box. 

The invention of the X-ray was a boon 
to tlie bomb expert. By its aid he is able 
to look into the most cleverly constructed 
infernal machine without even tearing off 
the wrapper inclosing the package. The 
illustrations show the deadly contents of 
two examples. One is a bomb, the other 
an infernal machine. The first will explode 
by slicckj the other upon the opening of 
the lid of the box which was sent by mail. 

The expert's work is done in a remote, 
carefully guarded place, and within ease- 
mates. No one except the guard is allowed 
to approach, and the casemate is deeply im- 
bedded in earth to reduce the damage from 
a possible explosion as much as possible. 
Every time the expert enters to examine 
Some new device he has no assurance he 



will ever come out alive and whole; he may 
be blown to atoms any moment. It is de- 
sirable, however, to open and examine these 
engines of death, because in that way clues 
are often discovered which connect one case 
with another. 

On January 30 a bomb, in a grey paper 
package, was discovered near the residence 
of Prince Troubetzkoi, military attache of 
the Russian embassy in Paris. The same 
day a similar bomb exploded in the Avenue 




Interior of Underground ^VorK* 

sHop IVbere Bombs Are 

Examined 




Fig. 1— Photograph of Concussion Bomb. Fig. 

2 — X-ray picture of contents. Note large stick 

of Dynamite, large shot, nails and sharp frag- 
ments of iron. Very Deadly. 



de la Republique, and injured several peo- 
ple. The bomb discovered by Prince Trou- 
betzkoi was examined by the authorities, 
who found that it was filled with nails of 
various sizes, buckshot, cartridges, and 
fragments of iron. The other bomb, which 
was similar in construction, hurled its con- 
tents to a distance of thirty yards. 



WIRELESS MESSAGE PASSES THROUGH 
MANY TEMPERATURES. 



A wireless telegraph message was recently 
sent from Chicago to Key West, Fla. The 
message had to pass through many tem- 
peratures and varied weather conditions in 
the trip from the Lake Michigan locality to 
the Gulf Stream city, but the apparatus 
worked perfectly. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 99 

All-Steel Cars as LigHt as Wooden Ones 



The great objection to the all-steel car as 
urged by many builders has been on the 
score of weight. Prominent engineers, how- 
ever, declared that this objection was only 
a temporary one and that in a short time 
an all-steel car would be designed for a 
construction as light as the old wooden 
cars. 

The Metropolitan Elevated Railway Com- 
pany, of Chicago, has recently put into ser- 
vice an all-steel car but little heavier than 



so as to form a plate girder along each side 
of the car. The cross sills are 6-in. I-beams. 
On these cross sills rests the sheet steel bot- 
tom, which is of 3-16-in. sheet steel in the 
center of the car between the bolsters, and 
5-16-in. from the bolsters to the ends of the 
car. On the interior %-in. stiffening plates 
or braces, which are covered by the backs 
of the seats, are used. Between posts on 
the inside of the car, wood furring faced 
with steel is placed. The roof is of wood, 




Framingi of the All-Steel Car 



the wooden ones of the same pattern, that is 
48,000 lb. without motors. The sides of this 
car from the window sills down to the bot- 
tom of the side sills are covered with i/i-in. 
steel plate, continuous from end to end of 
the car. This plate is riveted to a 6-in. 
channel-bai% which forms the side sill at 
the bottom, and to an angle iron at the top, 



covered with canvas, as usual in car con- 
struction. The seat frames are of pressed 
steel. On top of the steel bottom is first a 
layer of mineral wool and upon this, wood- 
en flooring. The only wood used in the en- 
tire construction is the flooring, the roof, the 
window sills and frames and a feAV minor 
details. 




Courtesy of the American Car & Foundry Co. 

All-steel Car Complete 



LoFC. 



100 



UN (J Y (J LOPE I) I A 



THE ONE-MAN RANGE FINDER. 



The establishment of the correct range 
is one of the important things where any 
fightinc; is to be done. The old-fashioned 




Fi^. 1— THe Old 'WTay 

way is shown in Fig. 1, where two officers 
are endeavoring to get the range of the sum- 
mit of the distant hill from the bluff above 
the river. By measuring the angles at the 
ends of the base line they will be able to 
calculate what would otherwise be a very 
difficult range to estimate. 

The new way — the Jap way — for the enter- 
prising Japs have found it out, requires only 
one man, and he can work in safety behind 
a tree if one happens to be handy. The in- 
strument can be used in a horizontal or 




vertical position. At each end of the tube 
is an object glass which reflects the view to 
the middle of the tube where there is an 
eye-piece. The calculation is made in very 
much the same way as by the older method. 



The International Commission awarded 
England $375,000 in settlement of the North 
Sea incident in which the Russian fleet fired 
on English fishing boats. 

♦ « » 

BALLOON BEATS FAST BOAT 



The aeronauts Faure (left) and Latham 
(right) ascended in their balloon at a quar- 
ter before seven on the evening of Febru- 
ary 11 and the wind being favorable crossed 
the English Channel and landed safely at 
one o'clock the next morning. The ascent 




After the Voyage 

was from the Crystal Palace, London, and 
the landing at St. Denis, Paris. The time 
made beat the fastest boat-train by three- 
quarters of an hour. 

♦ * » 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY FOR THE POPU- 
LACE. 



Fi^. 2— THe Nemr "Way 



In England anyone can go to a telegraph 
office and send a telegram to friends or other 
persons at sea on a transatlantic liner at a 
cost of only 13 cents per word, all telegrams, 
however, to amount to at least $1.60. The 
postoffiee recently completed negotiations 
with the Marconi International Marine Com- 
munication Company by which communica- 
tion between all telegraph offices and the 
wireless telegraph stations on the coast was 
established. The patronage will consist 
chiefly of business messages. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



101 



Btiilding Boats from Paper Patterns 




Easier to Build a Boat TKan to MaKe a Suit of ClotHes 



By C. C. Brooks, President Brooks Boat Mfg. Co. 



In the days when your mother made your 
clothes what would she have done without 
the paper pattern? What the paper pattern 
is to the housewife cutting out a dress op 
garment, the paper boat patterns are to the 




inexperienced builder. In fact the average 
young man will now experience much less 
difficulty in constructing a 20-ft. launch than 
in making himself a suit of clothes. From 
printed directions you select certain kinds 
of wood of suitable size, lay the pattern on, 
draw the lines and go ahead with saw aiad 
chisel. No difficult calculations, and guess- 
ing at curved lines, with vexatious blun- 
ders and doing it over a second time. 

Economy of time and labor for builders 
of small boats, whether the builder is an 
amateur workman or one regularly engaged 
in the business is gained by the use of the 
paper pattern system. These patterns are 
printed the exact size of every piece of 




timber entering into the construction of a 
boat from the keel pieces and the molds to 
the last streak of planking and all the little 
details required to complete the craft, inside 
and out. 

They are printed for every style of pleas- 
ure craft from a canoe to a cruising launch 
and come as a pleasing surprise to those 
who have given up cherished projects of 
building their own boats after considering 
the time and skill required to lay down the 
lines of a proposed craft on the shop floor 
and take off frorh them, by tedious measure- 
ments, the shapes of molds, planking, etc. 
This work is, in fact, almost out of the 
question except to one skilled in boat build- 
ing and the inexperienced man who under- 
takes the job usually either throws it up 
in disgust or comes out with a craft of such 
ugly proportions as to make it a laughing 
stock among his nautical friends. But with 




the paper patterns all the preliminary work 
is done for him. All he has to do is to cut 
out his timber as directed and fit it together 
and he produces duplicates of boats built 
by skillful craftsmen on lines which are 
known to combine beauty, speed and safety. 
In using the patterns their lines are trans- 
ferred to the necessai'y timber or planking 
by tacking the pattern in place, punching 
awl holes along the lines, close together 
where the curves are sharp and farther 



102 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



AlETHOO OF puTT/NO PLflNK. 



'hcTKOooFCLOsme stnna 




Two Stages of Construction««Motor I^aunch 



apart wbere the lines are straight or nearly 
so; the patterns are then removed, nails 
driven lightly into each awl hole and then 
by bending thin, flexible strips of wood up 
to the nails the lines can be marked out on 
the timber exactly as they appear in the 
pattern. In building a boat the keel, stem 
and stern pieces, which form the backbone 
of the craft, are usually constructed of oak 
and vary in number and shape according to 
whether the craft is of the popular torpedo 
stern design, a variation of the same known 
as the compromise stern, or the older styles 
of transom and fantail sterns. Fig. 1 shows 
the shape of these pieces in a transom stern 



boat and Fig. 2 shows the keel put together, 
molds in place and rib-bands fastened on, 
ready for bending the ribs into place. In 
Fig. 3 is shown a detail of construction 
which the inexperienced builder might leave 
out. This is the use of stop-waters in the 
joints in the keel. These joints are difficult 
to calk in the usual manner, but are made 
Avater-tight after fastening together by bor- 
ing holes through the joints and driving in 
soft pine plugs freshly covered with white 
lead. 

The matter of steaming and bending ribs 
and planking is often thought to be trouble- 
some but it is really a simple affair. The 




EjKainples of "How to Buil4" 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



103 




ribs are frequently the only parts of the 
boat which require steaming and a steam 
box can easily be constructed which will 
take its supply of steam from a tea-kettle or 
the necessary pliability can be obtained by 
soaking the timber in hot water. This also 
applies to the planking, when steaming ig 
required, as it is only at the ends that steam- 
ing has to be resorted to to secure the 
needed pliability. 
In building rowboats and the smaller 



N. STC1. 
f\. KEEL 




STOi>wATe»i P'iS' ^•^ 



sizes of launches there are two methods of 
fastening the planking; clinker or lap seam, 
and carvel, or smooth seam. The former 
is preferable as it gives added strength to 
the boat, but with the heavier planking of 
the larger craft this method cannot be fol- 
lowed. With printed instructions on how 
to proceed, and the use of patterns, almost 
any person, who has any Ivnack in the use 
of tools, can build a serviceable and sightly 
craft from a canoe to a launch. The satis- 
faction of sailing your own boat, and the 
experience of malving it, open up a new and 
intensely pleasurable line of work to the 
thousands who find their best recreation 
in "making something with their hands." 



DEAD BLACK STAIN FOR HARD OR SOFT 
WOODS. 



Apply one coat of hot logwood solution 
and allow it to dry, then apply a second 
coat. When the second coat is dry, apply 




"Sa-wred from Patterns'* 

a solution of acetate of iron, made by dis- 
solving iron filings in hot vinegar or In 
acetic acid. This has a chemical action on 
the logwood, says the Manual Training 
Magazine, and turns it black. Let it dry 
and finish by rubbing in a little raw linseed 
oil or finish with wax. 




Examples in Bending 



104 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Woman Makes Iron on tHe Stage. 




Dazzling experiments in tlie new science 
of alumino-tliermics have been conclucted by 
a lady on the English stage recently, says 
the Illustrated London News. This science 
Is astonisliing when one first sees this ex- 
periment. The apparatus and principle 
is just the same as in thermit weld- 
ing. The woman pours thermit (iron ox- 
ide and aluminum powder) and barium su- 
peroxide into her crucible and ignites the 
barium superoxide. A blinding ineandes'- 
cence results and in 30 seconds a lump of 
iron is formed. The temperature of the 
molten mass is A-ery high. The experiments 
in their order are as follows; 



1. The iron is made in a small crucible 
and falls from it through 12 in. of water 
and burns a hole in an iron plate at the bot- 
tom. Temperature 5,200 degrees Fahr. 

2. Temperature of 5,200 degrees Fahr. 
generated in a hat. 

3. Molten iron from the crucible pierces 
a 2-in. iron plate. 

4. A hole with clean edges bored through 
an iron plate by the molten metal, 

5. Making iron for a horse shoe in 10 
seconds. 

6. An ingot of the iron beaten into a 
horse shoe in a few seconds by the lady 
performer, 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Rolled Steel Car WHeels 



105 



Latest Process One of Great Importance to Railroads and tHe 

Ptxblic 



"Ab the mighty oak had its origin in the small acorn, so the great railroad systems of to-day rest upon the 
stability of the flange of a car wheel. 

"Upon this small section of metal, about 1 1-4 inches square, depend the lives of the millions of passen- 
gers and the value of merchandise of incalculable price. Passengers amid the comforts and luxuries of our 
modern service hardly realize the vital importance of this piece of metal; but engineers and railroad managers 
do, and they have been directing their best endeavors to this most vital element of railroad equipment. " — Vauclain. 



The passenger about to start on a 4,000- 
mile journey across the United States is at- 
tracted by the ponderous size of the loco- 
motive which is to draw his train, and by 
the luxurious and substantial appearance of 
the palace sleeping and dining cars in which 
he is to live for the succeeding five days. 
But not one in a thousand gives a thought 
to the character and strength of the wheels 
which are to carry him through moun- 
tains, across deserts and over slender 
bridges hundreds of feet above seething tor- 
rents. And yet throughout all the long 
journey, from noon to midnight, there is not 
a moment of the time the train is in motion 
that a terrible accident is not possible should 
the tiny flange on any one of the hundred 
wheels under the train crack and break. 
The traveler almost never thinks of this, but 
railroad operators do constantly, and so care- 
ful and far-reaching is the construction and 
inspection of car wheels that this greatest 
possibility of danger is reduced to a cause 
so seldom occurring as to constitute a really 
marvelous fact. 

In the first days of railway cars the wheels 
were made of wooden spokes and rims cov- 
ered with a thin strap of iron. With heav- 
ier cars and faster trains the cast iron wheel 
came into general use; and a continued in- 
crease in speed and load resulted in the 
chilled-iron wheel, a distinctly American 
product, and the wheel is now in use all over 
the land. The infrequency of accident caused 
by the failure of this wheel is sufficient 
evidence of its excellence. 

The chilled- wheel (only the flange and 



that portion which comes in contact with 
the rail— the tread of the wheel— is chilled 
and hardened), however, is beginning to be 
taxed to its utmost on account of the big 
50-ton cars which the railroads are now or- 




Fi^. 3.— After the Drop Test 

dering. To safely carry these great loads a 
demand exists for wheels with stronger 
flanges and longer wearing qualities. The 
weak point in the present wheel is the brit- 
tleness of the flange, and the tendency of 
the wheel to heat when the brakes are ap- 
plied. This has led to the production of a 
rolled-steel car wheel, the entire wheel be- 
ing rolled from a single piece of steel. 




Fig.l.->Steel In^ot for THree "Wheels 



1'06 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



In an address before the Franklin Institute 
Samuel M. Vauclain, superintendent of the 
Baldwin Locomotive Works, describes how 
the new wheel is made. A steel ingot is 
first divided into sections, as shown in A, B, 
C, in Fi,g. 1. Each section weighs about 700 
pounds. The section is brought to a white 
heat in a furnace, from which at the proper 
moment, it is removed by an almost human 




Fi^. 2. Diagram of R.olls 

mechanical device called the "mechanical 
man." This machine reaches into the fur- 
nace, picks up the section or "blank," carries 
it to a huge 5,000-ton hydraulic press and 
deposits it there. There it receives the form 
of a car wheel, but on emerging from the 
press is conveyed to the rolls, where it is 
subjected to enormous pressure and re- 
volved at a high rate of speed, emerging 
a perfect wheel. When cool the hub is bored 
out and the wheel is ready for the severest 
service. 

In order to determine the strength of the 
rolled steel wheel, some interesting tests 
were made. One test was to support the 
wheel horizontally upon a ring underneath 
the face of the tread and allowing a wei^t 
of 2,240 lbs. to fall upon it. It took thirteen 
blows to break a 36-in. wheel,, eight of the 
blows being from a height of 30 ft. Another 
wheel was tested in running position, and 



striking with a weight of 2,240 lbs., it took 
seventeen blows, nine of them being from 
25 ft, to fracture the wheel from rim to 
hub. Fig. 3 shows the wheel after the test 
just described. 

A solid rolled-steel wheel has a first cost 
of $58.80, with a scrap value of $8.75, a life 
of 350,000 miles, or a cost of $1.43 per 10,000 
miles. 

The chilled-iron wheel has a first cost of 
$19.40 with a scrap value of $5.80, a life of 
80,000 miles, or a cost of $1.70 per 10,000 
miles. 



PROF. LOEB'S EXPERIMENT. 



Prof. Jaques Loeb, of the Leland Stanford 
University, has performed a wonderful ex- 
periment, the result of several years' effort 
toward the creation of life. He has not, 
however, as the earlier newspaper accounts 
stated, actually caused a new life. He has 
taken the female eggs of the sea urchin 
and by chemical means fertilized the eggs 
and hatched them. But he has made noth- 
ing complete as yet. Without the eggs he 
could have done nothing. If the eggs even 
had been ground to powder, he could not at 
present have taken that crushed mass and 
hatched out a sea urchin. His experiment 
is intensely interesting; his result quite sur- 
prising; but without the mother sea urchin 
all the mysteries of a wonderful laboratory 
are powerless. In the matter of creation no 
one has as yet successfully improved upon 
the first chapter of Genesis. 



THE ART OF NAIL DRIVING 



Theories are very good in their place, re- 
marked the late F. J. Holloway, but they 
would not teach one how to drive a nail. 
Nothing but practice will do that, and even 
practice without thought will not accomplish 
it, says Locomotive Engineering. 

You must have both combined. When you 
drive a nail in a board, what do you do? 
Do you trust to luck that the swinging ham- 
mer above your head shall come down in 
the right place? Do you concentrate your 
thoughts on the hammer circling in the air? 
No. You concentrate your thoughts and 
eyes square on the head of the nail you 
want to hit, and no matter where your ham- 
mer is or what curves it describes in the 
air, if your intense thought is on the spot 
where the blow should fall, there it will 
fall. If your thoughts wabble and are un- 
certain you will miss the nail or drive it 
sidewise. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



107 



HOV^ HOT VkTATER CIRCULATES 



flxcerpts from address of J. S. Brennan before the American Society ot Heating and Ventilating Engineers at New York 



The first cause of circulation of water in 
a hot water heating system by the force 
of gravity is that the water becomes com- 
pact as it cools off, and it therefore out- 
weighs the warmer and lighter water and 
pushes it to the top of the apparatus. Hot 
water will move only when there is a heav- 
ier and cooler body of water to displace it 
and force it upward by means of its su- 
perior weight. 

The drawing force which propels the 
water in the risers and radiators is propor- 
tional to the difference in the mean tem- 
perature of tlie ascending and descending 
parts of the apparatus, and does not depend 
upon the actual quantity of water contained 
in those opposing parts of a system with a 
given difference in temperature; it is also 
proportional to the vertical height of the 
circuit. For example, in a circuit or riser 
50 feet high the motive force would be twice 
as large as in one only 25 feet high. 

The force of the circulation through radi- 



□ -J 



Fi^. 1. Hot l^ater Heat 

ators with a given fall of temperature de- 
pends mostly upon the height of the return 
pipe, and is independent of the height of 
the riser pipe. Take for example, in Fig. 1, 
a radiator on the fourth floor. A, or 50 feet 
high, another radiator on the first floor, B, 
or 10 feet high, with both feed or riser 
pipes the same height. The circulation 



through the radiator on the fourth floor will 
be about three times as great as through 
the radiator on the first floor, notwithstand- 
ing the fact that the supply columns of both 
radiators are of equal height, because the 
return F is about three times as high as the 
returns E of the radiators on the first floor. 
The temperatures of the pipes C and D are 
nearly the same, consequently the water in 
D simply balances an equal height of pipe C, 
and fails to supply any force for circula- 
tion. The force for circulation in this cir- 




Fi^. 2. Poor Heat 

cuit therefore depends upon the preponder- 
ance of the weight of water in the return 
pipe E over the weight of that below the 
level of the radiator B. 

Fig. 2 is a fair illustration of a radiator 
with the usual style connections. The force 
of tlie circulation through the radiator de- 
pends upon the height of the return column. 
The return pipe having a strong pull on the 
radiator the current is along the lines in- 
dicated by the arrows, and the water in the 
radiator has but little circulation to it. The 
water rushes through the lower portion 
rapidly and the top of the radiator will be 
nearly cold while the lower part is hot. 
This gives poor heating results. 

Fig. 3 shows an improved connection to 
increase and improve the circulation in a 
hot water heating system, which has been 
successfully used by the writer on a great 
many hot water heating systems. The di- 
rection in which the arrows point shows the 
actual current within the radiator. The hot 



108 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



water must pass directly to the top, dropping 
to the bottom as it cools off, returning to 
the return pipe. The circulation is positive 
and by actual tests 6 degrees hotter than 




Fi^/3. Good Heat 

the circulation the old way, and, further- 
more, the entire surface of the radiator is 
heated. 

^—^ 

FRAZIL ICE. 



Did you ever hear of frazil ice? It is 
better known in Canada than in the United 
States, and forms under conditions quite 
similar to those which produce anchor ice. 
Many people think the two terms mean the 
same, but Professor Barnes of Magill Uni- 
versity says there is a difference. The To- 
ronto Engineers' Club defines frazil ice as 
"water at a temperature just ready to freeze, 
but prevented from so doing by motion; 
the action of freezing taking place when the 
degree of motion was lowered." "This is," 
Professor Barnes says, "contrary to all the 
known laws of ice formation. Motion is one 
of the essentials to the starting or production 
of the ice crystal of which frazil is but an ex- 
ample, the fineness of the crystal being deter- 
mined by the "degrees of motion." The whole 
question of the formation of frazil and anchor 
ice hinges on open water conditions, agita- 
tion, admixture and temperature of air, and 
to a certain extent on the clearness of the 
water and sljy. The same physical laws 
governing the change from the liquid to the 
solid state, wliich are known in the labora- 
tory, are operating on a large scale in our 
Canadian water-ways, and everywhere we 
witness the tremendous struggle going on 



in nature between ice and water. When 
such minute temperature conditions as a 
hundredth of a degree determine the im- 
mense formation of ice crystals in places 
too turbulent for surface ice to form, and 
render the effects of the ice disastrous to en- 
gineering works, we certainly witness a 
wonderful spectacle of the delicate poising 
of the foi'ces of nature." 

Anchor ice gathers in vast quantities 
at the intakes of water works and water 
power plants, and chokes the passage to 
an extent which entirely shuts off the flow 
of the water. In Chicago the water supply 
comes from cribs buried two, three and four 
miles out in the lake. During February and 
early March crews of men were kept work- 
ing night and day removing the anchor ice 
from the intakes. The w^ork is so exposed 
and exhausting that fifteen minutes at a 
time is the limit of endurance. 



DIVER'S INSULATED HELMET FOR ELEC- 
TRIC EELS , 



The story of the strength of the shock 
produced by an able-bodied electric eel has 
been taken by many people with a liberal 
degree of allowance. The submarine diver, 
however, who has to work in waters where 
the frisky eel is inclined to be friendly tells 
quite another tale. In proof of the shocking 
story a concern in New York, which malces 
diving suits for the Navy Department, an- 
nounces the completion of an insulated hel- 
met. The Marine Journal says; 

They recently made an insulated helmet 
which was to be used where electric eels 
were rather numerous, as the electric shock 
Avhich these eels are able to deliver to a 
diver is strong enough to make him insen- 
sible wlien it is transmitted to him through 
any exposed metal part of his armor, and 
for this reason it is unsafe to use an appara- 
tus unless perfect insulation can be insured. 
Although this insulating was a very difS 
cult matter, the experience of this old estab- 
lishment in making divers' outfits enabled 
them to do it so that the diver could be 
guaranteed perfect immunity from this an- 
noyance. 

♦ *» 

PASTE FOR MOUNTING PHOTOS. 



A good mounting paste is made as follows: 
Mix well together 3 oz. dextrine, % oz. sugar, 
and 4 oz. water; heat until thoroughly dis- 
solved and let cool. Then add 50 minims 
carbolic acid. A drachm of glycerine may 
be substituted for the sugar with excellent 
results. 



E N Y C L O P E D i A lU*t 

Teleg^rapHin^ Direct From London to Persia 



4>000 Miles Over Rivers, Mountains and Deserts 



j oo o oooo o oo o 
rooooooooooooooooooooo 
coooooooooo o 



oooo ooo ooo, 
oooooooooooooooooooo 
ooo o ooo oo o 



w 



H 



T 



Four hundred words per minute^ by tele- 
graph from Liverpool, Llauchester, or Lon- 
don direct to Telieran, Persia, are sent by 
the use of the system spelled in telegraphic 
language, Fig. 1, on a punched paper ribbon. 

It is by this long telegraph line that Lon- 
don keeps in touch with its Government in 
India. Teheran, in Persia, is the terminal 
station of the direct line, the messages from 
there being sent over various lines and ca- 
bles. 

To understand the working of the Wheat- 
stone system, suppose a clerk in the London 
office receives a message from Teheran. He 
seats himself before an instrument called 
a perforator, which has three keys. The 
number of holes punched by each of these 
keys, one, two and three, are shown in 
Fig. 2. The first rep- 



O 

O 
O 



O 
OO 

o 



Fi^. 2. 



resents a space, the 
second a dot, and the 
third a dash. Using 
these keys the clerk 
writes the message on 



a paper ribbon which looks, when ready to 
send, like Fig. 1. The ribbon containing 
the message is passed to the sending clerk, 
who, by means of clock-work, feeds it rap- 
idly into the transmitter, a toothed wheel 
catching in the middle line of holes. Pins 
on moving levers drop through the punched 
holes as they come along, making contact 
alternately with the positive and negative 
poles of a battery. A receiving instrument 
has on it an inked disk. As the current 
flows in one direction the disk touches the 
paper and draws a line representing a space, 
dot or dash, until a current in the oppo- 
site direction lifts the disk. These currents 
are just Avhat are produced by the contact 
through the punched paper in the trans- 
mitter at the sending station. 

At every relay station a Wheatstone re- 
ceiving apparatus is in circuit, and the clerk 
is able to see how the signals are leaving 
his station by starting the instrument and 
looking at his slip. If the signals registered 
are imperfect, and the station preceding him 
reports that they left him '0. K." he knows 
that if the line is in good electrical 



5 7- O A/ £ 

condition, his regulation is at fault. By this 
means there is a check kept upon the work 
during the whole period of transmission. 

One clerk can send messages as fast as 
several can punch them. A single ribbon 
can be used several times to send the same 
message to different places. So much for 
the system. 

The line discussed starts at London, runs 
to the German coast, thence to the Russian 
frontier, thence to Warsaw, and Odessa, 
through the Steppes, Crimea, northeast of 
the Black Sea, through the mountains and 
forests to Tiflis then south over the deserts 
to Persia's old capital Tabriz, thence to Te- 
heran. 

Great difficulty attended the construction, 
and every year gangs of men are required 
to keep the line clear through the forests. 
Falling trees and flocks of wild geese some- 
times interrupt communication, but the 
greatest trouble is the severe hoar frost, 
called ''reifeis." This collects on the wires, 
sometimes forming a sheet of ice from one 
wire to the other, and when swinging is set 
vip by the wind, wires are broken and the 
iron posts bent over. Many remedies have 
been tried with a view to prevent this trou- 
ble. At first the binding wire used to attach 
the wires to the insulators was strengthened, 
but it was found that this caused even great- 
er difficulty. It was better that the wires 
should break away from the insulators than 
that the whole line should be destroyed. 
Later a large number of posts was added, 
and it was found that this additional 
strength materially improved matters, al- 
though interruptions still occurred. In Per- 
sia the insulators offer a fine mark for the 
rifles of the wandering tribes. 

This long line is only kept in good order 
by having a series of control stations along 
its entire length from the Russian frontier 
to Teheran; in a counti"y where the line is 
particularly liable to disturbance, these con- 
trol stations are 20 to 25 miles apart, and 
when a fault occurs the controllers of the 
two stations between which the fault is lo- 
cated are immediately ordered out to remove 
it. Interruptions are restricted by this means 



110 



E N (' V (• i.C) PET) I A 



to short intervals unless the line for some 
distance is completely wrecked by "reifeis," 
and this has occurred on more than one oc- 
casion. 

This line was first worlied by the Morse 
system, but so much time was lost in re- 
transmitting the message that the Wheat- 
stone automatic method was tried between 
Teheran and Odessa in 1897. It was so sat- 
isfactory that one after another of the re- 
transmission stations were cut out and the 
new system installed. 

It was not long before relay apparatus 



was introduced in the London office. Mes- 
sages to and from Manchester and Liverpool 
Avere tlieu exchanged by those places direct 
with Teheran, a distance of 4,000 miles, with 
11 automatic relay staions. 

Not only has the time of transmission 
been reduced, one may say, almost to a 
minimum, but traffic is not affected nearly 
to the same extent as under the old system 
by short interruptions; messages continue to 
be punched up during these intervals, and 
are put through in large batches at great 
speed as soon as communication is restored. 



MARCONI 




the Hon. Beatrice O'Brien, a member of an 
aristocratic Irish family which has a his- 
tory of 400 years. 

C4uglieImo Marconi was born in Bologna, 
April 25th, 1875. He was educated in Leg- 
horn, under Professor Rosa, and, subsequent- 
ly, at the University of Bologna, in which 
citj' were carried out the first experiments in 
connection with his system of wireless teleg- 
raph}'. Marconi's invention was success- 
fully tested in England between Penarth and 
Weston, and later by the Italian Ministry 
of Marine at Spezia. Wireless telegraphic 
communications were established between 
France and England in 1899; two years later 
he was enabled to transmit signals across 
the Atlantic Ocean from Poldhu, Cornwall, 
to St. John's Newfoundland. In 1902, Mr. 
Marconi's system was installed on board the 
Italian crusier Carlo Alberto, and during her 
voyage from England to Russia, he received 
messages from Cornwall and transmitted 
them to the Tsar and the King of Italy at 
Kronstadt. Later on, in December of the 
same year, he Avas able to announce the es- 
tablishment of his system of wireless teleg- 
raphy between Canada and England. This 
was followed, a few weeks later, by the 
transmission of a message from the Presi- 
dent of the United States to the King of 
England, inaugurating wireless connection 
between Cape Cod and Cornwall. 
4 , » 

TO ACCELERATE SPEED OF SHIPS. 



The above portrait is the latest picture 
of Marconi, who is shortly to be married to 



Prof. Carlo del Lungo, demonstrator in 
physics at the Royal Lycee of Spezzia, has 
invented and patented, both in Italy and in 
England, a device for pneumatically lubri- 
cating the hulls of ships. Professor Lungo, 
it is stated, pumps air into the water sur- 
rounding ships, thereby diminishing the 
density of the water, and it is held that the 
effect of pumped air is analogous to the lu- 
brication of machinery by oiL 



E N Y t' L O P E D 1 A 



111 



SWITZERLAND 



MTSJMPUON 



Mfi 



t-EPONTIN£ ALPS^ ITALY 

L, OAV/NO 




BRIGUE 

1 



Longest Ttiimel in IKe World Completed 



Ten TKousand I^aborers MTorRed NigKt and Day— Care of 
"WorKmen— International Bearing 



The boring of the Simplon tunnel, the 
greatest tunnel engineering feat of the age, 
was completed on February 24, when the 
two gangs of workojen, Swiss and Italian, 
who had been working towards each otlier 
for a period of six and one-half years, joined 
hands through the small gap which assured 
the ultimate success of the enterprise. 

The Simplon tunnel is I214 miles long, 
the longest of the four tunnels now piercing 
the Alps and, in proportion to its length, 
was constructed in less time than either 
of the others. The tunnel extends from 
Brigue, Switzerland, to Iselle, Italy, and its 
purpose is to enable tlie Jura-Simplon rail- 
way from Geneva up the Rhone valley to 
connect with the Italian road from Milan 
at Iselle, and so afford an all-rail route 
from Geneva to Milan, and also shorten the 
distance from Milan to Calais. The com- 
mercial advantage thus afforded Switzer- 
land, Germany and Italy is obvious. France, 
too, will be benefited. When the St. Goth- 
ard tunnel was opened she lost much of the 
international traffic that had theretofore 
passed over her raihvays. The Simplon tun- 
nel will restore a portion of this to her. 

Work on the Simplon tunnel started simul- 
taneously from tlie Swiss and Italian sides in 
August of 1898. 10,000 Italian workmen in all 
l)eing employed, 4,000 at Brigue, Switzerland, 
and 6.000 at Iselle, Italy. The men were not 
all employed at the same time, however, but 
the work was kept up night and day by 8- 
hour shifts. The tunnel consists of two dis- 
tinct bores, 56 feet apart, center to center. 
At the middle, for a space of 420 yards, the 
two become one tunnel to make room for 
sidings and cross-over tracks. The two 
tunnels are connected by transverse galler- 
ies every 650 feet. At first only the eastern 



tunnel will be used for a single track 
railway, the smaller or auxiliary tunnel act- 
ing as a ventilating shaft, until such time as 
the receipts of the first tunnel shall be suffi- 
cient to warrant its enlargement to the nor- 
mal section for a single track. The main 
tunnel is 19 feet wide and 19.3 feet high, 
the auxiliary tunnel is 6.5 feet wide and 10 
feet high. This mode of construction has 
been of great advantage. The auxiliary 
bore was always kept ahead of the main 
gallery, and tracks were laid in the trans- 
verse galleries so that material from the 
forward headings could be removed without 
passing the men behind. The altitude is low- 
er than in any other Alpine tunnel, being 
only 2,310 feet above sea level. This is the 




S^viss Entrance and Tunnel Ma<> 
cbine SHops 



112 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



reason for the greater lengtli 
which the engineers decided 
was prefei'able to so great a 



death from the pestilential at- 
mosphere. At the Simplon, 
large dressing halls are pro- 




Hot Sprinif 



gradient, which has been a drawback in the 
other tunnels. 

From the first, the construction work 
proceeded against many and unexpected ob- 
stacles. The high temperatures of the rock, 
at times as high as 130 degrees F., was a con- 
stant menace to the health of the laborers; 
on the Italian side numerous streams of 
water were tapped, most of these were 
small, but again the water would be of 
considerable volume and flood the workings. 
Hot springs, some discharging 750 gallons 
per minute, were continually breaking in, 
and it was necessary to work around them. 
The tool which most facilitated the work 
is known as the Brandt drill. This drill is 
3 inches in diameter and rotates slowly, 
being kept at its work by hydraulic pres- 
sure of 1,500 pounds to the square inch, or 
10 tons on the cutting faces of the drill. 
The waste water is discharged along the 
axis of the drill, keeping the tool cool and 
washing out the rock cut away. By means 
of this drill the galleries on the Swiss side 
were advanced 20 feet or more daily. 

At each end of the tunnel a permanent 
ventilating plant, consisting of two 200-hp. 
turbines running at 400 revolutions per 
minute and drivng two huge fans 12.3 feet 
in diameter, are installed. These plants at 
either end supply a maximum of 106,000 
cubic feet of air per minute at a pressure of 
10 inches of water per minute. The tunnel 
portals are closed by sail cloth curtains 
operated by electric motors. The fans may 
be used to draw out gases as well as for 
forcing fresh air into the tunnel. 

During construction there have been few- 
er accidents to laborers than in any other 
of the great tunnels. The St. Gothard tun- 
nel dealt death to 400 laborers, who were 
attacked by miner's worms and breathed 




THe Delude 



vided at either entrance, and the temperature 
is the same as Avithin the tunnels'. The men 
pass in through boarded platforms and re- 
main for a half hour until they are gradual- 
ly cooled off. The great danger is the lia- 
bility of contracting pneumonia by sudden 
changes of temperature. In these dressing 
halls there are baths, hot and cold douches, 
and usually the vv'oi'k garments are laid 
aside there and fresh raiment donned. 

The lodgings provided for workmen are 
perfectly sanitary, the food is of the very 
best in quality and the cost is nominal. 
There are also well equipped hospitals. 
Within the tunnel the tracks are laid on 
one side to afford room for pedestrians and 
the trains are run by schedule and pro- 
tected by signals. Thus has the loss of life 
been minimized. The men were provided 
with 58,000 cubic feet of air per minute. 

The cost of the great tunnel complete will 
approximate $15,054,000. 



ELEVATORS FOR STEAMSHIP ENGINEERS. 



The steamship engineer carries great re- 
sponsibility, and so much depends on him 
that any device that will facilitate his move- 
ments about the ship or aid him in his work 
is well worth installing. The American Ship- 
builder suggests the need of elevators for 
the personal convenience of engineers in 
descending or ascending the 30 or 40 feet 
to and from the engine room. The means of 
descent is ordinarily a slippery iron stair 
ease where a firm gi"ip, steady nerves and 
a sure foot are required to make it in safety. 
The ascent exhausts any man to a degree. 
The elevator would cost little as there is 
always plenty of steam or electricity at hand 
and plenty of room to spare. No elevator 
boy would be required as any engineer could 
operate the elevator himself. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



113 



ELECTRIC COAL SHOVEL. 



FIRE ENGINE THAT DOES THINGS. 



The filling of the retorts for making coal 
gas is hard and unhealthy work. The re- 
moval of the coke is even more so, for in 
addition to the heat there are deadly gases 
escaping which fill the lungs of the work- 
ers. 

Electricity and mechanics have joined in 
providing a remedy. By means of a most 
ingenious machine one man now does the 
work of twenty. A trolley car line is con- 
structed to run in front of and close to the 
retorts. When a retort is ready to fill the 



Remarkable English Machine Which Propels It- 
self, Pumps Air and Water, Makes Elec- 
tric Light and Has a Telephone' 



The most wonderful and cosmopolitan fire 
engine in tlie world has recently been put 
in service in Manchester, England. In the 
first place horses are discarded, and by a 
new and simple system of gearing the 
steamer propels itself at a higher rate of 
speed than previously attained by any self- 




Filling Retorts 'writH the Electric SHovel 



car is moved into position and the operator 
pulls a lever. Instantly a stream of coal is 
shot into the oven depositing at the farther 
end, which is usually 20 feet from the door. 
As the retort fills the lever is moved, reduc- 
ing the velocity with which the coal is 
thrown and thus depositing it nearer and 
nearer the front until the oven is filled. 

The operation has required just 10 seconds, 
during which 900 lbs. of coal has been uni- 
formly distributed. One 12-hp. and one 18- 
hp. motor have done the work. The door 
is then closed and sealed, and the nozzle of 
the distributing tube is raised, lowered or 
moved along to the next oven, as the case 
may be. All the operations of the charging 
car are controlled by one man using three 
levers. 



propeller. Fire engines that run with their 
own power are not unusual, but this ma- 
chine is a real power plant. An air pump 
is connected by gearing with the crank shaft 
of the engine, which furnishes air through 
a flexible metallic hose to firemen working 
in dense smoke, or placed where they are 
subject to gas or fumes of acids or other 
chemicals. This flexible hose is connected 
with a protective helmet worn by the fire- 
man, which is made of heavy leather, ex- 
tending down over the shoulders and sup- 
plied with an opening for the eyes and part 
of the face. The air enters at the back of 
the helmet and flows around the face, pass- 
ing out of this opening, keeping the eyes and 
nose free from smoke. The helmet contains 
a telephone receiver and transmitter whereby 



114 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



communication can be maintained with 
tlie officer at the fire engine, and by means 
of a switchboard, if necessary, with a chief 
official. The engine has a small dynamo, 
located over the front wheels, and connected 
with the fly-wheel by means of a belt. This 
furnishes a current for eight 32-candle 
power incandescent lamps through a flexible 
cable, so that, provided with a hand lamp, a 
fireman can penetrate dark and smoky apart- 
ments, where it is necessary often to cut off 
gas or oil supply. The entire equipment, in- 
cluding the protective helmets for the fire- 
men, is stowed in the forward part of the 
fire engine, which is of the usual English 
pattern, and adds comparatively little to its 
weight. 



DINING CARS ON TROLLEY ROADS. 



Cooking Done in an Electric Kitchen 



What is said to be the first regular dining 
car service on trolley roads is now in opera- 
tion on the iuterurban line from Dayton, 
O., to Indianapolis. The trains are known 
as the inter- state limited. The kitchen is 
equipped with all the latest electric cooking 
utensils, and when the cook builds a fire in 
his stove he turns a button instead of split- 
ting kindling. 




Trollesr Dining> Car 

The Street Railway Journal says the time 
table is arranged so that people will take 
advantage of the buffet service and to make 
close connections witli limited cars on other 
roads. The cars stop only at stations in the 



larger towns, and a passenger is required to 
purchase a seat check before entering the 
car. Sales of seats are telephoned ahead 
and seats are reserved, and sales never ex- 
ceed the seating capacity of the car. The 
interurban linos have a more direct route 
between the terminals than the competing 
steam lines, and the running time is nearly 
as good. Including the excess of 50 cents 
for the through run, - or 25 cents between 
points on any one or two roads, the fare 
is considerably cheaper. The buffet service 
is claimed to be the first in regular service 
on an interurban road. The menu follows 
closely that used on regular Pullman buffet 
cars, and the prices are very reasonable. 



WARMING BOOTH FOR FIREMEN. 



The men in city fire departments are great 
sufferers from cold each winter. The more 
severe the weather the larger the number of 
fires. A newspaper man in Pennslvania has 
devised a portable warming booth which 
consists of a collapsible frame of iron pipe 
over which a canvas cover is drawn. Steam 
from the fire engine is passed through the 
pipe frame warming the booth which will 
accommodate three men standing at a time, 
■♦ * » 

SUPPLIES CAPTURED AT PORT ARTHUR. 



The Japan Times, Tokio, February 11th, 
gives a list of supplies which were found in 
Port Arthur, and which became the property 
of the Japanese with the surrender. Shells, 
82,670; rifle cartridges, 2,266,800; powder, 30 
tons. The amount of the food supplies will 
cause surprise, and included 1,422,000 lbs. of 
flour; 4,400 lbs. of barley; 176,000 lbs. of 
crushed wheat, 2,970 lbs. of rice; 30,800 lbs. 
of mealie meal or maize; 132,000 lbs. of bis- 
cuit; 77,000 lbs. of corned beef, 770,000 lbs 
of salt; 44,000 lbs. of sugar; 1,375,000 lbs. of 
beans; 1,900 horses in fine condition, and 
50,000 roubles in cash. In the naval depot 
were 500 tons of biscuits; 250 tons of new 
flour— brought one month before by the "King 
Arthur"— 400 tons of flour of earlier import; 
40 tons of sugar; two tons of butter; some 
barrels of salt beef; 75,000 tons of Cardiff 
coal, 15,000 tons of briquette coal; and 55,000 
tons of Japanese coal. There was an almost 
inexhaustible store of vodka, beer, cham- 
pagne and other wines — "too great a store," 
was the significant comment of a Russian 
admiral. Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes were 
in abundance. No private stores were com- 
ir.nncleered. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

CART FOR STEERING GEAR 



115 




Steering Disabled Auto -writH Sulllsr Shafts 



Wlien be ran into a fence at the bottom of 
a long bill, and smashed both front wheels 
and the steering gear, a man in Saliua, Kan- 
sas, made a valuable discovery. He bor- 
rowed a two-wheeled cart of a near-by farm- 
er. Then, says the Automobile Review, tak- 
ing two long hedge poles he ran them over 



the rear axle and under the front axle and 
then over the axle of the cart. This raised 
the front of the machine off the ground and 
he had the shafts of the cart to guide with. 
The progress he made was not quite so fast 
as he had been making, but he got home all 
right. The farmer had a ride to town. 



Gun Camera PHoto^rapHs Tarpon 



Kodak fiends love to tell of a "good shot," 
but here is a real genuine "shooter." The 
device was made specially to order and as 
shown in the illustration consists of a cam- 
era carried on a gun barrel. The apparatus 
was made for the special purpose of photo- 
graphing tarpon when leaping in the air 



and the March number of Outing, from which 
the illustration is taken, contains several re- 
markable pictures taken with this camera. 
The gun arrangement permits instant and 
accurate sight; a touch of the trigger and 
the picture is taken. The barrel is sighted 
as in firing a shot gun. 




Gt&n Camera for PhotoffrapHin^ Moving Birds and FisH 



116 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



EVERLASTING STEEL BURIAL CASKETS. 



Steel burial caskets are now made which 
are absolutely air and water tight, and 
which are practically indestructible from the 
alements to which they are exposed. The 




Removinii from Galvanizing Kettle 

method of construction is simple but in- 
volves the use of enormously heavy ma- 
chinery. 

A sheet of heavy steel is placed in a pon- 
derous press 16 ft. long and which weighs 
40 tons. Here the metal is subjected to a 
hydraulic pressure of 100 tons. When it 
has been shaped the casket is submerged 
in a great kettle holding 30 tons of molten 
metal, where it is galvanized. After gal- 
vanizing the finishing work consists in pro- 
ducing the effect of natural oak, white en- 
amel or whatever tint or finish is desired. 







j-^ 






..mm ^j^., 




^sk 


^^^^^HBSi ■''^■-\^^^¥ 


3 


1 


w 


^p 


? 


Q 


U 


w^^K^^sf^^ 



The steel case is intended to contain the 
wooden casket, and is made in sizes from 38 
in. long, weighing 48 lbs., up to 89 in., weigh- 
ing 195 lbs. 

♦ * » 

A railroad in Georgia is painting all its 
locomotives and tenders a brilliant red. As 
red is the universal danger signal it will be 
particularly unsafe to be run over by one 
of these "ruby rushers." 



PNEUMATIC TIRES IN 1845. 



Pneumatic tires are by no means the mod- 
ern invention we would suppose. At the 
recent motor car show in London there was 




displayed the first pneumatic tire ever 
made. The illustration gives an excellent 
idea of its appearance and construction. 



WHAT DOES THE EARTH WEIGH? 



TKe 40-Ton Press 



The scientists are doing great things out 
in California. While Prof. Loeb is hatching 
out fatherless sea urchins another has fin- 
ished weighing the earth. He says: 

Under standard gravity a cubic foot of 
earth weighs about five and a half times as 
much as a cubic foot of water. A cubic 
mile of earth then weighs 25,649,300,000 
tons. The volume of the earth is 259,880,- 
000.000 cubic miles. The weight of the world 
without its atmosphere is 6,666,250,000,000,- 
000,000,000 tons. If we add to this the 
weight of the atmosphere given above vi'e 
get a grand total— 6,666,255,819, 600,000,000,- 
000 tons." 

No wonder Atlas became round-should- 
ered! 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Ordered to tHe Scrap Heap 



117 




Xhe illustrations sHoiv a fe^v types of ivar vessels of ^vHicli £n^lanfl 
has ordered several score to tHe scrap pile. A.11 tHese boats virill be 
replaced by tbe most moderxk xkaval engines of 'war obtair&able, ai\d 
$200»000,000 a year 'will be spex\t ii:\ improviz^g be-r xxAvy. 



MODERN MACHINERY AT THE VATICAN. 



The Vatican at Rome, rich in antiquities, 
is soon to receive a number of innovations 
in the Avay of modern machinery. The Pope 
has ordered that tlie Vatican observatory be 
equipped with wireless telegrapliy, two lino- 
type machines be installed in the Vatican 
and a huge dynamo in the Church of St. 
Peter's for illuminating that magnificent 
structure, There is also some talk of in- 
stalling an electric elevator for carrying 
visitors to the dome of the church. Besides 
these, Pius X has ordered two of the latest 
type automobiles for personal use in the 
Vatican gardens. 

♦ »» 

A new Atlantic cable will be laid during 
the coming summer. The cable will be of 
high speed and the latest improved type. 



ASSEMBLING MACHINERY BY PHONE. 

Machinery experts can locate many trou- 
bles in a machine by the unnatural sound it 
makes. Recently a Canadian firm had some 
difficulty with a machine of Boston manu- 
facture which they had tried to install them- 
selves. Finally, in despair they called up the 
Boston firm over the 'phone and were di- 
rected to run their telephone wires into the 
room where the machine was so that -an 
expert, who was at hand, could determine 
by the noise it made what was the trouble. 
The expert directed the Canadian people just 
where the receiver of the telephone should 
be placed and in a few seconds more he had 
told them what was the trouble, and how to 
remedy it. The change occupied but a few 
moments and in a short time everything was 
running smoothly. 



118 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Modern MetKods in Tea Manufacture 



Germs From Coolies' Feet Are No I^on^er Distillecl in tl&e Beverage-- 
no Pound Cbest PacKed in Two Minutes 



The manufacture of tea in the Orient, 
once carried on by the hand and foot labor 
of coolies, has undergone remarkable 
changes in the past few years by the intro- 
duction of western methods and machinery 
which have reduced the time and labor re- 
quired in tea manufacture to a minimum. 

The machinery is operated by native la- 
borers and the bustling scene on a large, 




Fig. 1— Boiling Machine 

well-equipped tea estate in India or Japan is 
unusual in the extreme for a country where 
the climate naturally induces languor and 
the desire of ease. 

The leaves of the tea-plant, plucked by 
native laborers and in a crisp and brittle 
condition are brought to the factory in 
baskets. Here they are carefully weighed 
and then spread out on shelves or racks in 
what are called withering lofts. These 
buildings are about 175 ft. long, 35 ft. wide 
and have six or eight lofts where the tea is 
spread. The sides of the loft are open; the 
floors are of timber. In the withering lofts 
the tea is reduced to a limp state, the vol- 
ume of air in the loft being controlled by 
fans which direct the current over the 
spread leaf. This withering is accomplished, 
no matter what the climatic condition, in 
from 12 to 16 hours. Without the fans, it 
would require from 48 to 60 hours, or even 
longer, says Page's Weekly. 

When the leaf is limp enough to take a 
twist without breaking, it is removed to a 
rolling machine (Fig. 1), where its cells are 
broken up before the fermenting process. 
The rolling machine consists of a hopper in 



which are fitted "ploughs," and is mounted 
on a table. It has a capacity for from 300 
lb. to 350 lb. of withered leaf. By a 
movement of the table a strong lateral pres- 
sure is exerted and causes a boiling motion 
in the center of the mass of leaf and so 
gives it an equal and well-twisted rolling, 
also keeping it cool throughout. 

From the rolling machine the wet roll is 
passed through a rotary seive which breaks 
up any compacted masses of leaf and sepa- 
rates the finer tea from the coarser, so that 
the different classes may be fermented sep- 
arately. The finest qualities ferment fast- 
est and are dried off as soon as suflBciently 
fermented. 

One of the most important processes of 
the whole manufacture is the drying of the 
leaf after fermentation. Two types of dry- 
ing machines of from 40 to 350 lbs. capacity 
are manufactured for this purpose. What is 
known as the "downdraft" drying machine 
is shown in I^g. 2. The wet roll is spread 
on trays which are inserted in the drying 
chamber through the bottom trap port and 
which, as the drying progresses, are gradu- 
ally raised by a system of levers until they 
are opposite the top tray port, when they are 
withdrawn, the tea being fully dried. The 
hot air for drying is produced in the stove 
and drawn down through the trays by 
means of a centrifugal fan. A coolie oper- 
ates the apparatus. 

The other type of drying machine, shown 




Fi(r. 3— TTpdraft Drying llaoliln* 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



119 




FlC. 4. TEA SORTING MACHINE. 



FIG. 5. TEA PACKER. 



in Fig. 3, is called the "updraft," and works 
with a self-acting upward current of heated 
air which passes through the tiers of trays 
in the drying-chamber where the leaf is 
spread. The air passes either into the fac- 
tory or into the chimney, as desired. The 
capacity is for 350 lb. of fully dried tea per 
nour and the operation requires but one 
attendant, for the dried tea is discharged 
automatically at the close of the process. 
Any kind of fuel is used in the stoves with 
the driers, from wood to oil fuel. 

The last process is the sorting, grading 
and packing of the tea. A sorting and grad- 
ing machine is shown in Fig. 4 and a pack- 
ing machine in Fig. 5. Of old the packing 
was effected by coolies trampling the tea 
into chutes with their bare feet. In using 
the packing machine, the chests are clamped 
in a vibrating table, which makes about 
2,000 vibrations per minute, and so causes 
all the particles of tea to settle down closely 
in the chest. A 110-lb. chest of tea is packed 
in this manner in about two minutes. 



INSTALLING GASOLINE ENGINE IN 
SMALL BOAT. 



A reader requests instructions for prop- 
erly installing a gasoline engine in a small 
boat. Inasmuch as there is quite a differ- 
ence in the construction of the many ex- 
cellent gasoline marine engines it is imprac- 
tical to give details which will answer in 
each case; what would be advisable in one 
might be very undesirable in others. The 
better way is, having made your selection 
of the engine, to follow the directions which 
each engine builder furnishes with his ma- 
chine. These instructions are usually very 
explicit. 

The general rule, however, calls for an- 
choring the engine securely and setting it 
as low in the boat as possible. The engine 
should receive sufficient pitch of course to 
bring the screw propeller well under water, 
although the stern will naturally draw 
down into the water somewhat when the en- 
gine is running. 



120 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



THE OIL COMBAT IN KANSAS. 



PORTABLE AIR-COMPRESSING OUTFIT. 



The controversy between the people of 
Kansas and the Standard Oil grew out of the 
sudden advance in freight rates on crude oil 
for which the Standard is blamed. Ci'ude oil 
which was selling at $1.38 per barrel was 
thus reduced to 70 cents per barrel. The 
Standard was practically the only pur- 
chaser. Hundreds of wells had been sunk 
owing to the attractive price. When the pro- 
ducers rebelled, the Standard retaliated by 




"Hoiv Careless" 

refusing to buy at any price. Complaint 
was also made that the Standard was charg- 
ing the public 20 cents a gallon for refined 
oil, or $10.50 per barrel, whereas the oil 
plus the cost of refining is claimed not to 
exceed $2 per barrel. 

The legislature then passed a bill entitled 
"A Bill to Provide Labor for Convicts," un- 
der which money was appropriated for the 
erection of oil refineries owned, controlled 
and operated by the state. The constitution- 
ality of the bill has been questioned; the 
courts will probably have to decide that 
point. The purpose of the state refineries is 
to afford an equalizing influence which will 
remove the present condition of monopoly. 
Some other states desiring to make an ex- 
pression of sentiment have voted loans to 
Kansas to aid in the work and several other 
oil states are agitating the question of state 
refineries. 

The Kansas legislature deny that the act 
is socialistic in spirit; but merely done for 
self preservation. The cartoon entitled 
"How Careless" is from the Chicago Chron- 
icle and shows the housewife "Kansas" 
lighting a fire in the stove with paper "So- 
cialism" and pouring "State Oil" on the 
flames. 



Portable power plants are increasing botL 
in number and favor as for many jobs noth- 
ing could be of greater convenience. Last 
month we described a portable electric pow- 
er plant complete in itself, while this month 
it is a portable air compressor outfit, which 
may be carried from one location to another 
and used for the operation of drills, chipping 
and riveting tools, sand-blasting and simi- 
lar purposes. 

The outfit is entirely self-contained, as the 
boiler, compressed air receiver, air compress- 
or, and circulating pump for cooling the air- 
cylinder jackets are all mounted on one 
truck. For riveting hammers the compressor 
is proportioned to deliver air at about 100 
pounds pressure per square inch, while for 
sand blasting and stone tools, air is sup- 
plied at 70 pounds pressure. The receiver 
permits the storing of air so that a much 
larger number of tools may be operated than 
otherwise, since it is only occasionally that 
all tools are in operation at the same time. 
The pressure of the air is maintained by a 
pressure governor, while the compressor is 
prohibited from running away, in case of a 




Portable Air Compressor Outfit 

break on the air line, by a fly-ball speed 
governor, the two governors being so com- 
bined that they operate upon a common 
throttle valve. The compressor engine ex- 
hausts into the stack, thus increasing the 
draught. The air compressor cylinder walls 
are jacketed and are supplied with cooling 
water by a small duplex pump. 



The defeat of the Russians by the Jap- 
anese navy in the Sea of Japan was the 
greatest naval battle of modern times. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



121 



Four-Cylinder Balanced Compound Locomo- 
tives. 



The first locomotive of the four-cylinder 
balanced compound, ten-wheel type was 
built in January, 1902, for the Plant System 
of Eailroads, as the 20,000th built by the 
Baldwin Locomotive 
"N^'orks, after seventy 
3'ears of operation. 
Since then the im- 
prove ments have 
been numerous and 
our i 1 1 u s t r ations 
show the construc- 
tion and arrange- 
ment of the cylin- 
ders of a simple 
compound locomo- 
tive of large size. 

A compound en- 
gine is one in which 
the same steam is 
made to do Avork in 
more than one cylin- 
der. In large marine 
engines the '"expan- 
sion" is carried 
through three or 
four cylinders. Such 
engines are called 
triple expansion or 
quadruple expansion. 
The high pressure 
cylinder, or the one 
which first receives 
the steam from the 
boiler is the smaller, Fxe*« 

and each successive expansion cylinder 
is larger than the one from which it 
receives its steam. In locomotive work 
the '"simple compound" type is used, consist- 
ing of one high pressure and one low pres- 
sure cylinder on each side. The main feat- 
ures of the engine on which the compound 
described is installed are as follows: Total 



weight of engine, 176,510 pounds; tender, 
109,490 pounds; tank capacity, 7,000 gallons; 
working pressure of boiler, 200 pounds; 
fuel, soft coal; total heating surface, 2,793 




Fi^. 1. Cylinder Saddle 





Fi^. 3. Valve BusHin^ 



2. Piston Type Valve 

square feet, covering 3'41 15-foot 2-inch steel 
fire-tubes, and including 128 square feet in 
fire-box; grate area, 27 square feet; weight 
on driving wheels, 127,010 pounds. 

The low-pressure cylinders are placed out- 
side the engine frames, and connected to 
the driving wheels by crank pins, while at 
the same level inside are the high pressure 
cylinders with a crank-driving, axle connec- 
tion. 

The cylinder saddle. Fig. 1, is cast in two 
parts, then bolted together. Each part has 
a high and low pressure cylinder with steam 
admission controlled by one valve. The 
Stephenson valve motion is used as in single 
cylinder engines, and the piston type valve, 
Fig. 2, slides in a bushing, Fig. 3, forced into 
the cylinder saddle. Only one reverse lever 
in the cab is i-equired. 

Fig. 4 shows steam entering the H. P. 



122 

cylinder at the crank end, and the 
exhaust at the other port passing 
to the valve cavity which acts as 
a receiver, while the valve edges 
control the admission to the L. P. 
cylinder. Low pressure exhaust 
passes under the front and back 
cavities in the valve. The start- 
ing valve connects the two live 
steam ports of the H. P. cylinder 
to allow the steam to pass over 
the piston. 

The moving parts of the H. P. 
cylinder are going in one direction 
while those of the L. P. cylinder 
move in the opposite direction. 
Similar speed and weight of parts 
in each keep a balance. Two pis- 
tons on each side of the locomo- 
tive, traveling in opposite direc- 
tions, make strains equal and pre- 
vent "nosing." 

One illustration shows the dam- 
age done to rails by an ordinary 
Atlantic type unbalanced locomo- 
tive running 80 miles an hour over 
swampy land. A more compact 
foundation prevented the inner rail 
from looking like the outer one. 

Totalling the advantages of a 
balanced compound locomotive over 
simple engines, we have: a sav- 
ing in coal and water of 20 to 25 
per cent per indicated horsepow- 
er; less steam used, hence higher 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

STARTING VALVE 




Rail Depression 



Fiff. 4'' Steam Distribution in Balanced 
Compotxnd C>'linders 

boiler effi- 
ciency; lighter 
stack exhaust 
with more 
complete, 
slower c o m- 
bustion; high- 
er boiler pres- 
sure and diy- 
e r steam; 
greater range 
of expansion, 
divided be- 
tween the two 
c y 1 i n d e r s ; 
higher temper- 
ature of cylin- 
ders and con- 
sequent less 
cylinder con- 
den s a t i o n ; 
cost of repair 
same as in 

«•. ^ simple en- 

Caused by Imperfectly Balanced oinP« 

Lrocomotive t,iut:&. 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 

HutcHing FisH by Millions 



123 



Hoiv Uncle Sam Transports and Distributes Fish £^^s and FisH by I^and 
and Sea>«R.easons for FisH Ctilture-'Gov-erninent HatcHeries. 



In no other country is fish-culture con- 
ducted on so scientific a basis as in the 
United States. The first hatchery in this 
country was established at Caledonia, N. Y., 
in 1868, and as early as 1883, Prof. Huxley, 
at the International Fish Conference held in 
London, said that no nation comprehended 
dealing with fish so scientifically as we. 
Every year millions of fish are hatched at 



in a thousand of these eggs would be 
hatched. Many decay, thousands are not 
vitalized, some are covered with sediment 
and die from suffocation and great numbers 
are devoured, for all fish are fond of spawn. 
But even should the eggs lodge in a favor- 
able place, as just where a spring bubbles 
up and they are continually agitated by the 
waters, the first few days of each tiny croa- 




X7. S. FisH Commission Car No. 3, SHoM'^in^ SHippin^ Tanks. 



aur government hatcheries and the young 
fish distributed all over the country, to our 
lakes and rivers. Not only that, but millions 
are sent abroad, to every part of the globe, 
and the care of fish and eggs in transport 
is so well understood that they are sent 
thousands of miles without material loss. 

To appreciate the full value of this work, 
one must know something of the conditions 
surrounding eggs and young fish hatched in 
the natural place and way. Fish are ex- 
tremely prolific and the number of eggs left 
in a stream would mount into many mil- 
lions. Salmon produce 1,000 eggs to each 
pound of weight, shad 50,000 in all, herring 
25,000, trout from 200 to 3,000, according to 
weight and size. Left alone perhaps one 



ture's life is fraught with peril. Nature has 
provided him with a nursin,g bottle larger 
than himself, which, while it nourishes him, 
is a great encumbrance and makes him un- 
able to protect himself and the chances are 
that he will be devoured by the larger fry 
before he has had time to absorb the yolk 
sac. In the spring this yolk sac is absorbed 
in a few days, but in the fall it takes from 
30 to 40 days. This is due to difference in 
temperature of the water. 

When the eggs are collected and hatched 
under artificial conditions much of this loss 
is prevented, ofttimes for millions of eggs 
the loss being no more than two per cent. 
Government hatcheries are situated all over 
the country. Different species sometimes 



124 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



require different treatment, but a tiatchery 
usually includes the same apparatus. The 
Spearfish station in South Dakota, for in- 
stance, is a frame building 32x62 ft., heated 
by steam, and including an office, reception 
room, boiler room and two bedrooms above 
for use of attendants. The hatching ap- 
uaratus comprises 32 troughs 13 ft. long by 
12% in. wide. These are fitted with shallow 
trays for the eggs and are capable of han- 
dling 1,000,000 eggs. Water supply is 
brought by gravity from springs. There 
are also twelve rearing ponds 100 ft. by 8 
ft; three spawning ponds 120 ft. by 20 ft, 
and two spawning ponds 84 ft. by 20 ft., 
all 3 ft. deep: three stock ponds aggregate 
15,000 sq. ft. and there is an ice house 20 
ft. by 14 ft. This is a typical hatchery, 
though many are on a larger scale and have 
more accessories. 

The salmon hatcheries on some of our 
western rivers represent one of our great 
Industries. Eetaining racks, 190 ft. long and 
resting on six piers 28 ft. apart made by 
bolting timbers together in the form of a 
triangle with the long angle upstream and 
the spaces filled with stone, are used. These 
have a number of traps which allow the 
fish to pass upstream but not return. The 
fish are dipped from the trap with soft net 



bags and assorted according to sex and con- 
dition. They are placed in woeden pens 
12 ft. by 4 ft. and having grated sides and 
floors. They are then taken to the spawn- 
house where the eggs are stripped into tin 
pans, washed and vitalized and placed on 
shelves to stay until they can be taken to 
the hatchery. Each fish after undergoing 
this operation is weighed and measured and 
any unusual fact about it is recorded also. 
Buckets with capacity for about 50,000 eggs 
are used for carrying the eggs to the hatch- 
ery and they are carried with extreme care. 
At the hatchery the eggs are measured into 
shallow baskets by dippers holding 1,800 
each. The water in the troughs is kept in 
circulation and the eggs are picked over 
every other day. The fifth day they are 
left until they can be handled. At a temper- 
ature of 50 deg. F. this will be about 15 
days. When the eye spots appear the eggs 
are packed in shipping cases, with layers of 
carefully prepared moss, free from all in- 
sects and fungi, for transportation. 

The great quantities of white fish eggs and 
shad eggs to be handled made some device 
for hatching on a larger scale imperative 
for these species. Consequentlj^ automatic 
hatching jars were introduced for the pur- 
pose. These are cylindrical glass vessels of 




HatcHing SHad and %VHite FisH on a Larffe Scale. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



125 




Hatchery on a Fish Commissioik Vessel 



7 qts. capacity Avith hemispherical bot- 
toms and supported by three glass legs. 
The top receives a screw cap closed by a 
metallic disk having two %-in. holes, one in 
the center for admitting a glass tube intro- 
ducing water into the jar, and the other at 
equal distances from the center and the 
edge of the metal plate, for the glass tube 
carrying waste water. The central tube is 
connected by a i/^-in. rubber tubing with the 
pet cock which regulates the water supply. 
The opening is arranged so it is sealed her- 
metically. 

When ready for work the jar is washed 
and filled with fresh water and a shallow 
tin funnel with perforated rim inserted just 
so the water stands as high in the throat 
of the funnel as possible. The eggs are then 
poured in by dipperfuls, 8,000 to 10,000 eggs 
per jar. The jar is closed in a manner which 
expels all air from the feed tube. A boiling 
motion is established in the mass of eggs 
and all dead eggs remain on top where they 
are easily accessible. By this means many 
more eggs can be hatched than where nec- 
essary to handle them, "feather" them over 
for dead eggs, etc. 

The government has provided vessels both 
for inland and coastal waters in connection 
with the work of the Fish Commission and 
besides these has cars specially fitted for 



transportation and distribution of eggs and 
fish. Fish Commission Car No. 3 is repre- 
sentative of this part of the work. This car 
is 60 ft. long (interior dimension), 9% ft. 
wide and 13 ft. 8 in. high. It has two large 
doors in the center from roof to floor to 
facilitate loading and unloading and is fin- 
ished in ash. It contains an office at one 
end and an ice box of 1% tons capacity and 
a pressure tank of 500 gallons. At the other 
end is the boiler room and kitchen. The 
boiler room is equipped with a 5 hp. boiler, 
a circulating water pump and air and feed 
pump. The tanks and cans for transporting 
fish are carried in two compartments along 
the side of the car between the office and 
boiler room. These compartments are 30 
ft. long and 3 ft. wide and 25 in. deep. The 
hatching outfits carried are eight lead-lined 
boxes 6 in. high with six automatic hatch- 
ing jars in each, three on each side of an 
aquarium. These are lifted out in the day- 
time and wedged in trays on top of the com- 
partments. At night they are put back to 
allow the four berths above them to be 
lowered. There are chairs, also that can be 
raised and lowered and for dining a table 
is placed in the aisle. Under the car be- 
tween the trucks is a reservoir tank holding 
600 gallons of water. The water is pumped 
from this into the pressure tank near the 



ll'6 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



office, passes from the pressure tank to the 
fish cars and tanks and back agahi to reser- 
voir. 

These cars travel thousands of miles every 
year, carrying millions of fish into the dis- 
tricts where there is a demand for them or 
where the waters need replenishing. The 
work thus done is of incalculable benefit 
both to the fish industry and to the people 
in keeping them supplied with an important 
food product. 

♦ >» 

PONTOON METHOD OF RAISING SUNKEN 
VESSELS. 



Where conditions admit of its use the pon- 
toon is one of the easiest and quickest meth- 
ods of raising a sunken ship. The pontoons 
consist of strong steel tanks, which are 
ranged along both sides of the hull, and al- 
lowed to fill with water and sink. As they 
sink they are drawn in under the hull and 




^O TONS EACH TRlANGLi 
POn TOON 



which empty the pontoons of water by fill- 
ing them with air. When the hull is floated 
it can be towed to a dry dock or beached 
where permanent repairs can be made. The 
illustration shows the pontoons employed in 
raising a small vessel of only 1,070 tons. If 
there are holes in the hull they are first 
closed if possible. These patches are made 
in various ways, frequently with strong oak 
plankin'i-. which is held in place by strong 
bolts. 



ENGLISH COAL FIELDS. 



Latest Examination Gives 435 Years Before 
Fields Will Be Exhausted 



The English coal commission has com- 
pleted a long and very thorough examina- 
tion of its coal fields, and reports that the 
supply will last 435 years. This is based 
on the expectation that mining can be car- 
ried on to depths of 4,000 feet. The amount 
in round numbers is 140,000 million tons, 
of which 4,000 million tons is in Wales. 

The present domestic heating system is 
most extravagant, the houses being warmed 
by means of open grates, which involves a 
yearly waste of 16,000,000 tons, which go 
up the chimneys in heat and soot. In this 
connection the regulation of the London 
Fire Department regarding chimneys burn- 
ing out is interesting. When a chimney 
burns out the Department responds, and the 
unfortunate householder has a fine of $25 
to pay for his carelessness. 



End View of Section 



BICYCLE POPULAR IN DENMARK. 



divers go down and fasten the pontoons to- 
gether. Chains and hawsers are also passed 
around the hull to hold the pontoons in 
place and braces are also placed. Pontoons 
of about 25 tons lifting capacity each are 
most easily bandied, but larger ones of 100 
tons capacity each are placed amidships. 
Powerful compressors are then set at work 



In no country is the bicycle so generally 
popular as in Denmark, where all classes use 
it for pleasure and business on the 4,000 
miles of almost perfect roadways. The gov- 
ernment has taken off the mail coaches and 
is using automobiles, and small launches are 
found in abundance on sound, lakes and 
fiords. 




BOTTOM SAMO Anoj^OCfCS 



^m^^^^:^^^ 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Stop Trains WitH Water 




'A train of 400 tons moving lO miles an hour '«vas successfully stopped** 



The formidable conti'ivances shown in the 
cut are not a pair of torpedo gnus; they are 
"hydraulic buffers," which are being used 
experimentally on the Caledonian Railway, 
Scotland. "\Mien an incoming train strikes 
Uie piston rods the pistons are forced into 
the cylinders, which are filled with water. 



The blow opens a valve which allows the 
water to pass out at a rate which acts as 
a yielding cushion to the train. The pistons 
have a travel of seven feet, says the Ameri- 
can Inventor, and in a test a train of 400 
tons moving at 10 miles an hour was suc- 
cessfully stopped. 



WIND PRESSURE ON HIGH BUILDINGS. 



Did you ever stand on the roof of an 18- 
story building when a great wind was blow- 
ing, or even on a building of lesser height? 
Doubtless you will recall your feelings on 
that occasion. How the huge structure 
seemed to sway back and forth bearing you, 
a mere atom, with it. Thousands of unutter- 
able thoughts surged through your mind in 
that brief space and some were great and 
noble, and all were vast. But at last, even 
though you were strong of nerve and could 
look down from the giddy height without 
a tremor, that sense of swaying, imagined 
or unimagined, threatening every instant to 
pitch you into the abysm of space, un- 
manned and sent you reeling back into 
safety. 

The sense of swaying is not imagined. 
Tall buildings do sway and how much they 
sway has been measured exactly, the dis- 
tance of the sway varying with the height 
of the structure and the velocity of the 
wind. Scientific "wind-bracing" of the 
present time goes far to" prevent this sway- 
ing and a building 200 ft. high withstands 
the force of a hurricane dashing against it 
with a force of 30 lb. on every square foot 
of its surface, swaying out of perpendicular 
probably no more than a quarter of an 
inch. 



Mathematics, the precise calculations of 
the mind which allow no "abouts" or 
"almosts," make possible the scientific con- 
struction of the slender shafts of steel cages 
which tower aloft in our great cities. Were 
it not for these careful computations of 
wind force and of the necessary resistance 
beginning at the upper stories and transmit- 
ted downward until it is distributed to every 
member of the steel frame and the whole 
strength from foundation to roof brought 
proportionately into play for the common 
defense, these buildings would soon be a 
mass of wreckage. The principle of this 
resistance is the same as a man's shoulder 
resists a push, the force of the push being 
distributed to every muscle and down to 
his feet, enabling him by the resistance of 
his whole body to stand firm. 



LEAD-LINED PIPE PROOF AGAINST SUL- 
PHURIC ACID. 



A jet of steam was introduced into a pipe 
carrying fumes from boiling sulphuric acid 
to a stack. It was thought the steam would 
condense the fumes, but instead it absorbed 
them and formed sulphuric acid which de- 
stroyed the heavy iron pipe in a few hours. 
A lead-lined pipe substituted for the cor- 
roded one was proof aginst the acid. 



128 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MANY RISK LIVES TO ENTERTAIN. 



That the public is best entertained by 
feats tliat involve great liazard to the per- 
formers is an old form of barbarism in a 
new guise. The rule that "the greater the 
hazard, the keener the interest," holds true 
in every case and works both ways. 

The day of the ,gladiatoi% of the fierce 
combat between man and beast, or beast and 



In England recently an inquest was held 
over a jockey who suffered a fatal accident 
while "circling the circ" in London's great 
Coliseum. "Circling the circ" is done either 
on horseback or on a bicycle, and is extreme- 
ly dangerous, as the rider depends on the 
speed to keep him in place on the sloping 
sides of the circle and is always riding at 
an angle. At the inquest mentioned, the 
chief of the general staff of the Coliseum 




Tviro Very Perilous Amtxsement Feats 



beast has long since passed in most coun- 
tries; the day of the prize-ring is rapidly 
waning, but an even more exciting form of 
amusement has taken the place of these. 
Anyone who has frequented the pleasure re- 
sorts of our cities cannot but have noticed 
the increasing number of mechanical devices 
by which the people are invited to race with 
death, or to watch others risk their lives. It 
is true that the lesser risks only are permit- 
ted the sensation-loving citizen and that the 
apparatus is made as "safe" as engineers 
can make it, but in every instance it is the 
hazard— the spice of danger— that baits the 
interest of the people. 




said that there was always an element of 
danger in such scenes. A few accidents 
more or less can only be expected. The 
revolving stage is dangerous to performers. 

The French are carrying dangerous amuse- 
ment feats to the extreme. One of the lat- 
est introduced in that country is called the 
"gyroscope." The gyroscope is a 13-foot 
wheel revolving around a horizontal and a 
vertical axis simultaneously. A bicycle 
track is on the inner rim of the wheel, and 
the trick cyclist mounted on his bicycle 
enters the track at a furious rate and so sets 
the gyroscope going. All at once he blocks 
his bicycle wheels, while the huge Avheel 
carries him up to quite a height. He repeats 
this performance several times until he 
is finally carried around with the wheel for 
six or seven revolutions. 



GOLD FROM SEA WATER. 



Tine "Gyroscope* 



London town for the past month has been 
considerably agitated by the brave assertion 
that a process for extracting gold from sea 
water at an expense of no more than $50 
for every $500 value of gold produced has 
at last been perfected. The same idea was 
mocked at a few years ago and most people 
supposed it had been wholly abandoned, but 
the assertions haA^e at least received enough 
support to send the prices of the shares of 
stock up much higher than originally. 



ENCYCLOPEnrA 



129 



STAGE DRAGON CONTROLLED BY A TELE- 
PHONE. 



In the opera "Siegfried" a dragon is an 
important feature of the entertainment, says 
a New York publication. This opera was 
rendered at the Metropolitan Opera House 
here recently, says the American Telephone 
Journal. The insides of the dragon, which 
is made of canvas and papier-mache, consist 
of two small boys, who are supposed to 
guide the beast's movements in accordance 
with the music. They are rarely equal to 
doing that correctly, even after rehearsal. 
The performance the other night is said to 
have been given without a single stage re- 
hearsal, as no time could be found for the 
preparation of the opera. It was, therefore, 
more than ever necessary to have the oc- 
cupants of "Der Wurm's" inside kept up to 
their business. The stage manager decided 
to install a telephone in the beast. It con- 
nected with the opera house switchboard. 
On one end was Herr Greder, the stage 
manager, and at the other were two re- 
ceivers strapped to the heads of the two 
boys, who received momentarily directions 
as to what they should do. The dragon un- 
der the circumstances covered himself with 
credit. 



SUBSTITUTE FOR TIRES. 



An elastic wheel for automobiles, com- 
posed wholly of steel, is a recent French In- 
vention. It is reported to have success- 
fully passed severe tests and to have met 
all requirements. The illustration shows its 
construction. The rim is coated with a 
band of rubber, which the Automobile 




Review says "does not increase to any ex- 
tent the elasticity of the springs and is in- 
tended solely to lessen the noise of the run- 
ning car." 

■»« » 

A NEW GAS METER. 

A small, inexpensive, and accurate gas 
meter, easily placed, is a new English inven- 
tion. It is called a "rotary meter" and 
works on the principle of a windmill. The 
gas operating on a set of blades turns a 
shaft, which transmits its motion to gear 
wheels, and they to a dial read as in the 
ordinary meter. The parts run with the 




R.otary Gas Meter 

least possible friction, and, there being no 
leather bellows or water, the gas pressure 
does not affect its working. It is invalu- 
able where the gas is dusty, being easily 
replaced by a clean one. Its low cost en- 
ables a consumer to place one on each sep- 
arate gas apparatus in the house, and thus 
determine how much gas is being used for 
various purposes. The one illustrated is 
three inches in diameter and three inches 
high, and is in place to measure gas sup- 
plying a fire. 



All-steel WHeel 



Corks boiled for some time in melted par- 
rafln are thus rendered impervious to air, 
acids and alkalies. Keep the cork beneath 
the surface of the paraffin, and heat and 
allow to cool a number of times. 



130 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



THE TANTALUM LAMP. 



The tantalum electric lamp is a new type 
of incandescent lamp, and receives its name 
from the metal of which the filament is 
composed. Tantalum, though comparatively 
little known, exists in considerable quan- 
tities and its cost in the raw state is not 
great. When drawn into wire it is some- 
what darker than platinum, and has a hard- 
ness about equal to that of mild steel but 
with greater tensile strength. The filaments 
are not easily broken in shipment of the 
lamps, and have a 
much higher resist- 
ance than the carbon 
now generally used 
in incandescent lamps. 
The life of a tantalum 
lamp is believed to be 
much greater than one 
of carbon, and to yield 
a better light. Owing 
to the peculiar lacing 
of the filaments, the 
tantalum lamp may 
burn through several 
times before becom- 
ing useless. Often a 
light tap on the lamp 
will bring a broken 
filament in contact 
with its neighbor. 
A peculiarity of tantalum is that its resis- 
tance increases with increased temperature 
while carbon diminishes in resistance with 
heat. The Electrical Review sums up the 
main points as follows: 

1. The tantalum lamp has a filament 
made of a metallic conductor and burns at 
once on being connected without any previ- 
ous heating. 



m 





2. The light-giving wire is prepared by 
melting in a vacuum and drawing; it is 
tough even in the cold state, and can there- 
fore be coiled and fixed in the lamp when 
cold. 

3. A relatively grtat length of wire can 
be placed in a simple manner within a bulb 
of ordinary dimensions. 

4. Tantalum ore exists in considerable 
quantities and can be easily procured. 

5. Similar principles of treatment can be 
adhibited to other metals of a very high 
melting point. 

The lamps are at present being made only 
in Berlin. 



AUTOMATIC JOURNEY RECORDER. 



The journey recorder is an automatic in- 
strument which can be attached to a motor 
vehicle and produces a record of the day's 
work of the vehicle showing when it was in 
motion and how long the stoppages were. 

A paper dial marked with the hours of 
the day is rotated by a clock, and a pencil, 




Filament Before and 
After iQoo Hours' Service. 



Filament Frame of 
New Lamp. 



RECORD OF THE DAY'S JOURNEY OF A VAN. 
Reading : Started out at 8.40 a.m. ; travelled 12 miles with 2 short 
stoppages, till 10.35 ; standing from 10.35 till 10.50 : (ravelled 3 miles, 
ill 11.15; standing, 11.15 lil| 12.35; standing, for dmner, from 12.50 
to 2.25 (too long) ; travelled 14 miles, with 3 stops, and reached home 
at 5 p.m. ; the last 6 miles were done in 30 minutes, which is loo fast 
considering the length of the journey. ' 

actuated by the wheel of the vehicle, draws 
a short line for each mile travelled; on the 
completion of the mile the pencil is returned 
and the mile recorded. When the vehicle is 
standing the pencil marks a concentric line. 
The gear for actuating the pencil is very 
simple, being a scroll fixed on the nave of 
the wheel, and gearing into a star wheel 
attached to the axle or spring, and by a 
flexible shaft inside a protecting tube, trans- 
mitting the motion to the recording mechan- 
ism. 



Floated a Brick House Down tHe AllegKeny 

R-iver. 



Passed THroui^H Storm and Flood. Over I^ocks and Under 1,omv 

Bridges, but Fell Not. 



A two-story brick house, sixty years old 
and weighing over two hundred tons, was 
recently moved from Sharpsburg, Pa., a sub- 
urb of Pittsburg, down tlie Allegheny river 
for a distance of five miles to the plant 
of the H. J. Heinz Company at Pittsburg. 
Aside from the age and structure of the 



reached the movers heaved a sigh of relief, 
though the worst was yet before them. 

Before anything further could be done a 
severe flood rose and swept the country, 
dooming many buildings in its path. The 
old brick house was surrounded by seething, 
pounding waters to a depth half way to its 




Toivin** a BricK House Do'wn the Allegheny River 



house the moving was effected against seem- 
ingly insurmountable obstacles and Avas cer- 
tainly a feat of its kind. 

The house was lifted by means of jacks 
and placed on blocks and rollers. From the 
very outset great difficulties were encoun- 
tered. Between the house and the river was 
800 feet of soft, marshy ground, appar- 
ently without bottom, and every moment 
it seemed that the old building would col- 
lapse. When the water's edge was at last 



second story, and stood midstream and al- 
most inaccessible. The blocking and rollers 
were weighted down with steel rails and im- 
mense beams to prevent its being washed 
away. 

At last the waters abated sufficiently to 
permit the work to proceed. The house was 
moved down the river bank and lowered 
upon a lauge coal barge. 

The barge was fifteen feet below the level 
of the bank upon which the house stood. 



lUi. 



132 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



i 






i 
1 











R.ea<ly to Move 

Huge blocks and timbers placed in rows 
rested on jacks in the bottom of the boat. 
A temporary foundation was built upon this 
and wlien tlie top was on a level with the 
banls, a bridge was built extending from 
the land to the boat. Over this bridge, the 
house was rolled and then it was slowly 
lowered until it rested upon the bottom of 
the coal barge. Then slowly the downstream 
trip proceeded, the barge being towed with 
great caution. Strong steel cable bands 
girdling the walls protected the old house 
from shocks. 

In the four-mile trip there were four low 
bridges which must be passed under, and 
in each instance it was necessary to scuttle 
the barge. That is, the barge was sunk to 
a sufficient depth to allow the house to pass 
under clear of the bridge, by letting in suf- 
ficient water for tlie purpose. After pass- 
ing under the bridge the water was pumped 
out. At one bridge the house had to be 
lowered six feet. Tlie next excitement was 
met in lowering barge and house through a 
lock. This was successfully accomplished 
and the river trip completed without dis- 
aster. 

In the final move to its new location it 
was necessary to cross the three tracks of 
a railway system in just one hour. This 
close time schedule was conformed with, 



I^^^^^H^H ^ igj^ 



and an exceptionally clever piece of work 
was finished without further adventure. 

The old brick house had at one time been 
the homestead of Mr. H. J. Heinz' s parents 
and the business of the company was started 
in it in 1869, and it was moved purely as a 
matter of sentiment. The house was built 
in 1854 by Mr. Heinz's father, who was at 
that time a brick manufacturer and general 
contractor. The worii of moving it began 
on the second of one month and was com- 
pleted on the fourteenth of the next, a little 
over one month's time. 



MORE OFFICERS FOR THE NAVY. 



The number of officers assigned to United 
States ships is only about half the number 
assigned to vessels of the same class in 
English, French and German navies, and is 
inadequate, says Rear Admiral George A. 
Converse, chief of the Bureau of Navigation. 
Admiral Converse says that unsatisfactory 
and dangerous conditions arise from having 
too few officers; that some of our battle- 
sliips have lieutenants as ordnance officers 
and others have ensigns and midshipmen as 
watch and division officers. He recommends 
that tlie number of lieutenants be increased 
from 350 to 600 and the number of lieutenant 
commanders from 200 to 300. 



CONSUMPTION OF RUBBER GREATER 
THAN ITS PRODUCTION. 



Movinff onto a Coal Bar^e 



Last year 60,000,000 pairs of rubber boots 
and slioes were manufactured and sold. This 
is a single item in the demand for a great 
commercial commodity which enters into tlie 
composition and construction of thousands 
of necessary articles. The demand for rub- 
ber has been increased by many tons in 
recent years by its use for vehicle tires. 

It is said that the production of rubber 
is increasing rapidly and yet not in ratio 
to the increase in its consumption. Conse- 
quently prices are going up, and rubber costs 
more than it ever has before, being quoted 
at $1.30 to $1,321^ per pound. This is a 
startling increase over a few months ago. 
In 1880 the highest price for pure Para rub- 
ber was only 50 cents per pound. 
♦ » » 

Engineers are scare in the United States 
navy and Rear Admiral Charles W. Rae, 
engineer-in-chief of the bureau of steam en- 
gineering, is urging special legislation by 
Congress with a view to inci'easing the num- 
ber of naval officers' available for engineer- 
ing duties. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 133 

Qtieer Craft TKat Cannot Sink 



Four Sailors Six Montl&s in Crossing tbe Atlantic in IS-Foot 

Sail Boat 




THe "Vraad" Cast Up O 

"In appearance a cross between a Rugby 
football and a well developed hen's egg," 
is the way the editor of Sail and Sweep 
tersely pictures a most remarkable little 
craft. The 'Traad," built by a daring Nor- 
wegian sailor, has recently reached our 
shores after a stormy voyage across the At- 
lantic. The queer little boat is only 18 feet 
long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet deep. It is 
built of %-inch boiler plate and will carry 
4% tons. In smooth water just one-half the 
boat is exposed. Just above the water line 
is a guard rail such as seen on towboats and 
steamers; this reduces the rolling motion; 
she also can-ies a centerboard. The helms- 
man is stationed below deck; in fact the 
crew seldom come out of the "hold," for to 
do so would mean being swept off into the 
sea. The interior is padded, and during se- 
vere storms the men cast themselves into 
bunks to prevent being pounded to a pulp. 

The one mast is of hollow steel, 20 feet 



Ik the BeacK at Gloucester 

long; the sail spreads 250 square feet. Capt. 
Abe Brude, who designed and built the craft 
at a cost of $600, says they left Norway on 
June 27, 1904, and were washed up on the 
beach at Gloucester, Mass., during the great 
storm on January 7, 1905. A few days be- 
fore this unseamanlike landing was made, 
the "Vraad" unshipped her rudder, and the 
crew could do nothing in the way of repairs 
or steering with an oar on account of the 
storm. The boat was uninjured and had not 
leaked a drop when the crew emerged on 
the beach when the tide went out. 



A new carbon silicide, second in hardness 
only to the diamond, has been discovered in 
tlie residue of molten iron from a meteor 
found in the Canyon Diablo, Ariz., by Dr. 
Henri Moissan of France. The experiments 
were carried on by means of an electric fur- 
nace. The new substance was named "ISIois- 
sanite" in honor of its discoverer. 



134 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

THe Largest Turbine in tHe World 



'^XTei^Hs 182 Tons — FtirnisHes 10,500 Horse Power — Powder Plant at 
SHaiviniifan Fallst Canada 



The largest turbine in ttie world, 30 feet 
high, 32 feet 21/2 inches wide, weighing 182 
tons, taking 395,000 gallons of water per 
minute, and furnishing 10,500 horse power 
was recently placed in the power plant of 
the Shawinigan Power Company, Shawini- 
gan Falls, Canada. 

It is of the horizontal shaft type, the 
water entering below and flowing out 
through two draft tubes, one on each side. 
The solid forged steel shaft weighs 10 tons, 
is 22 inches in diameter in the middle, tap- 
ering to 10 inches in diameter on one end, 
and to 16 inches in diameter on the other. 
The shaft bearings are 27 feet apart. The 
rotating part of the wheel or "runner" is of 
bronze, weighs 5 tons and under a head of 
125 to 135 feet of water makes 180 revolu- 
tions per minute. 

The water used for this great wheel at its 
full capacity would make a river 100 feet 
wide and 9 feet deep, flowing at the rate of 
60 feet per minute. This water is re- 
ceived at the wheel by an intake pipe 10^2 
feet in diameter. 

A special route with bridges high enough 



to allow the massive parts to pass, had to be 
selected for shipment and five flat cars and 
one box car were required to carry the tur- 
bine. 

The Shawinigan Power Plant is on the St. 
Maurice river 84 miles from Montreal. At 
this point the river runs for about 1,000 feet 
in a channel 600 feet wide and 20 feet deep, 
from the upper lake to the edge of the falls; 
so that the power estimated from a head 
of 135 feet running at 3i/^ miles an hour is 
125,000 horse power. 

From a village five years ago, Shawinigan 
is today a city of 5,000 people. On Feb. 3, 
1903, with a plant of 18,000 horse power, 
power was first transmitted to Montreal. In 
May, 1904, the 10,500 horse power turbine 
described in this issue was ordered, built 
and put in pla^e in the short period of five 
months. Of the 28,500 horse power now de- 
veloped Montreal gets 10,000 horse power 
for lighting, railways, and other power pur- 
poses. 

Three overhead cables, each composed of 
seven No. 7 aluminum wires, carry the cur- 
rent, "stepped up" from 2,200 volts, quarter 




Head R.ace, 135 Feet Above tl>e PQwer Hqus9 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



135 




CourteBj of tha I. P. Jloms Co., Fhiladelpbla 

Erecting^ the 10,500 H. P. Turbine in the Shop 



phase, to 50,000 volts three phase. The ca- 
bles are carried, one on the pole, and two 
on southern pine cross-arms, the poles being 
of cedar. The caMes are fastened to insu- 
lators capable of standing 100.000 volts and 
are arranged in the form of an equal-sided 
triangle, each side being 60 inches. At 
Montreal from "step down" transformers 



the current goes to motor generators which 
change it from 30 cycles to 60 cycles. The 
loss in sending the current 84 miles when 
8,000 horse power is delivered at Montreal, 
is a little less than 1-5 or 2,000 horse power. 
Another 10,000 horse power line to Montreal 
is being built and plans for a third are now 
being drawn. 



136 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HARVESTING ICE IN THE UNITED 
STATES. 



Millious of dollars are invested in equip- 
ment for cutting and storing natural ice, 
and the annual ice harvest is a crop of vital 
importance. The business is one about 
which the general public knows very little. 
The best cutting months are January and 
February, during which thousands of men 
and teams are very busy, even with the 
use of modern machinery, which has re- 
duced the work to a science. 

A thickness of 10 to 12 inches is preferred, 
and the best ice makes daring a con- 
tinued cold spell, when the freezing pro- 
ceeds evenly and produces clear ice free 





New York Tongs. 



Fhiladelphia Tongs 



from layers of snow or surface thawings. 
In many plants the actual cost of cutting 
and housing is less than 15 cents a ton. 
This does not include rentals of lakes or in- 
terest on anything; simply the getting a ton 
of ice out of the water into the store house. 
The crop which has just been gathered is 
one of the best in many years. Large com- 
panies always carry over from year to year 
a certain amount to insure against a poor 
crop, which must always be guarded 
against. 

In a Avell equipped establishment the out- 
fit is surprisingly large, including engines, 
hoisting machinery, electric light plant for 



all night work, commodious boarding hous- 
es, horses, and hundreds of tools of an end- 
less variety. It is possible here to show only 
one of a type: of tongs, for instance, there 
are more than fifty kinds. 



-O 



ThrecTintd Needle Bji 



«aAAAAAA/«^ 




Snoti Handk «Tin»d fork Bji 



Siarline Chisel Weslein faiiei 



Knob Handle SplilUiii! Fotk 




The first thing is to clear away the snow, 
if any. This is done with scrapers and 
horses. In extremely cold weather only so 
much surface is removed as can be imme- 
diately cut. The snow prevents too rapid 
freezing. Next the markers drawn by one 
horse each cut the lines of suitable width 
and depth— according to the thickness of the 
ice— until the field resembles a checker 
board. By means of augers a first hole is 
made for the saws, which are worked by 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 



137 




baud. An open place is made at the foot 
of the incline leading up into the house, 
and a channel opened extending out into 
the field, where the crop is being cut. The 
cakes are floated by men using "puller" or 
"shover" hooks attached to poles of suitable 
lengths up to 18 ft. Each man has his own 
special duty, and the work once started, 
progresses with a regularity and method of 
a factory. 

After the marker, follows the cutting 
plows, Avhich cut still deeper grooves, leav- 
ing only a few inches for the men to saw 
through by hand. When the ice is thin the 



hand sawing may sometimes be dispensed 
with and the cakes broken off by means of 
separating chisels, having a steel blade 4 
in. wide, 16 in. long, firmly secured at the 
end of a wooden handle 4 ft. 6 in. in length. 
The illustrations are self-explanatory. 

Ice houses would seem to be immune from 
fire; but do, however, burn frequently, with 
a total loss of house and contents. The 
buildings seem good marks for lightning, 
and their location far from any fire depart- 
ment, renders difficult any effort to extin- 
guish the flames, which strangely burn with 
intense fury and rapidity. 



138 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



NigKt Signals Used hty tKe United States 

No International Code of Ni^Ht Signals in Existence— SucH System VTotild 
Safeguard THousands of Lrives. 



It is a strange fact that in this humani- 
tarian era there is no international code of 
night signals for use on either land or sea 
in existence. Sti'anger yet, the merchant 
marine of the world has no established code: 
Each nation has its secret plan or chart and 
the code book of it is carefully guarded, 
and arrangements made for its destruction 




Igfnitin^ tbe Cartridg^e 

should there be danger of its falling into 
the hands of an enemy. On board a war 
vessel the code book has a piece of lead tied 
to its cover so that if need be to throw it 
overboard it will sink. 

There have been many attempts to estab- 
lish a simple international night signal sys- 
tem. Day signaling is provided for, mirror 
flash signals being used for long distances 
and flags, disks and semaphores for short 
distances. In 1873, when the White Star 
liner "Atlantic" displayed rockets and blue 
lights as a distress signal and they were 
mistaken as a salutation to a passing vessel 
and the "Atlantic" was lost, the great need 
for a distinguishing night signal sj^stem was 
felt. Most steamship lines now have such a 
system which is registered in the govern- 
ment bureau, and published in almanacs, 



The Coston system was arranged applic- 
able to Marryat's numeral code of flags then 
in use for day signaling and the system was 
adopted by the United States navy, green, 
red and white being the colors used. The 
signal has been greatly improved since first 
constructed in 1840. It then consisted of 
composition fires put up in waterproof 
boxes. When one was to be used, the cover 
of the box was removed, the box placed 
on a board and ignited by port fire, the dis- 
play being made from the surface or deck. 
Red, white and blue were used at that time, 
but after the 1859 patent, green was substi- 
tuted for blue, as it was more reliable as 
then produced. The color compounds were 
then put up in cartridge cases made of tin- 
foil and manila paper and a quick match at- 
tacked. In its next stage the cartridge was 
placed on a wooden handle by means of 
which it was held during the display and 
then, in 1863, it was constructed for use in 
the socket of a peculiarly made pistol and 
ignited by a percussion cap. The United 
States army used this apparatus and in 1877 
the United States navy adopted the Coston 
aerial night signal invented by H. H. Coston, 
late captain of the United States Marine 
Corps. The navy also uses searchlights and 
the "Adoise system," opei'ated by a keyboard 
turning on and off red and white incandes- 
cent lights. 

Wm. F. Coston improved the Coston sig- 
nals by igniting them by means of a per- 
cussion cap and made a signal combining 
aerial and surface display. This was a great 
improvement and the signal was adopted by 




Coston Improved Holder 



but this is far from being a satisfactory dis- 
position of the matter. 

"Signals of one or more colors in the same 
cartridge burning in succession," says the 
American Shipbuilder, "do away with any 
chance of failure or misunderstanding." 
Among such signals, what is known as the 
"Coston night signals," invented by Benja- 
nnn Franklin Coston in 1840, leads. The in- 
vention was not completed at that time, but 
was patented by the widow of Benjamin 
Coston in 1859, 



the United States, France, Italy, Denmark, 
Holland and Brazil. 

The Coston signal is efficient in any kind 
of weather and can be displayed from any 
place, and is distinctly visible at distances 
of 15 to 20 miles. The United States pilot- 
call signal used along our coasts is white, 
red, white in succession, the distress signal 
red, white, red in succession. The Coston 
signals have warned hundreds of vessels 
and saved thousands of lives and millions 
of dollars worth of property. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 139 

THermit Welding, Its Principle and Execution. 



Process Has Made Practicable Longf L>en^tHs of Continuous Rail: 
Involves One of tHe Most Important Scientific 
Discoveries of tHe A.^e. 



Thermit welding, or properly speaking, 
the new science of aluminothermics, is now 
generally conceded to be one of the most 
important scientific developments of the 
times. As a science it involves the chemi- 
cal combination of oxygen and aluminum 
(two elements common to almost all parts 
of the globe) in such a manner as to pro- 
duce a temperature equal to that of the 
electric arc. Metallic aluminum combined 
under the proper conditions with many an- 
other metal and ignited will reduce the other 
metal from its compound to its simple form. 
For instance, if it is combined with oxide of 
iron and ignited the aluminum unites with 
the oxygen of the oxide and forms alumi- 
num oxide (commercial corundum) and 
leaves the iron free. The iron sinks to 
the bottom and the slag forms the upper 
layer. 

Thermit, by means of which thermit weld- 
ing is accomplished, is a patented product, 
obtained under this principle. The ther- 
mit so produced may be ignited in one spot 
and combustion will proceed throughout the 
whole mass, without any outside heat sup- 
ply and so generate a very high temper- 
ature. The application of the heat is usu- 
ally by using small crucibles for melting on 
the spot where the weldiug or repair is re- 
quired. 

The process is extremely simple and has 
reduced the time required for repairing 
fractures in large metal parts to a consider- 
able degree, as the fractured part, no mat- 
ter what its nature, may be repaired while 
in place. 

The most important application of ther- 
mit so far is for welding rail joints. In 
modern trollev road construction the 




continuous rail plays an important part, be- 
ing used as the path for the return current. 
By the use of thermit the rail ends may be 
welded quickly and cheaply. 

This work has been carried on to a great- 
er extent in Eui'ope than in America, but 
has been watched with great interest by 
engineers everywhere. One American ex- 




Fig' 1. Crucibles 



Fiif. 2. Tapping Arrangement 

pert recommended it for use on an important 
track in Singapore, and in 1903 native labor- 
ers welded 3,000 joints and 20,000 joints 
were made in 1904. 

The outfit for welding a joint includes a 
crucible, C, Fig. 1, consisting of a sheet-iron 
mantle, lined with magnesia. Many trolley 
companies using thermit for welding on a 
large scale manufacture their own crucibles. 
To do this the lining is tamped around a 
cone suspended in the middle of the mantle 
and the crucible, with the cone, is 
placed in a furnace for two hours and 
slowly brought to a glow heat. The bottom 
is formed by a hard magnesia stone, E, 
provided with an exchangeable outlet. Each 
crucible will stand about twenty-five re- 
actions of the thermit process. In welding, 
if a complete butt-weld of the head of the 
rail is required, rail-clamps are necessary. 
but not otherwise. The only other appara- 
tus necessary is a mould box, having two 
parts, one for each side of the rail, which 
firmly enclose and fit the rail, and pi-ovided 
with channels for the thermit iron to run 
through. The whole outfit can be moved on 
a hand truck. 

To weld a joint the rail ends are first 
cleaned of dirt and rust with a wire brush 
and slightly warmed; the mould is then 



140 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



screwed to the rail and the rims touching 
the rail are smeared with clay. The crucible 
is placed on a tripod over the mould. The 
magnesia stone in the bottom of the crucible 
has an opening for the thermit when melted 
to run through. This is closed by a small 





Fi^. 3. IVeld in Side of Rail 

magnesia stone called a "thimble" (F, Fig. 
1). A tapping pin is suspended by its 
scarfed end inside the thimble and the top 
of the thimble is closed, first with asbestos 
washers and then Avith a metal disk. This 
is rammed firmlj^ in place with a hammer 
handle and then covered with magnesite 
sand. This prevents the thermit running 
out too soon. The apparatus then appears 
in ai'rangement as in Fig. 2. 

All being in readiness, thermit in the 
proper quantity is poured into the crucible 



liquid steel sinks to the bottom of the cru- 
cible, a distinct layer of aluminum slag cov- 
ering its surface. The weight of the iron 
and this slag is the same, though the slag oc- 
cupies three times as much cubic space. 
The weight of the iron is half that of the 
thermit powder. As soon as the reaction 
is completed, the crucible is tapped— that is, 
the tapping pin is sharply knocked upward 
and the thermit iron, at a temperature of 
5,400 degrees Fahrenheit, so released, runs 
through the thimble into the mould, around 
the web and foot of the rail, melting them 
and forming one mass with them. The liquid 
slag which follows the iron is diverted to 
the top of the rail and brings it to a welding 
heat. The heat is equal throughout. Three- 
quarters of an hour are required for one 
man to weld one joint without the use of 
clamps, and each weld requires from fifteen 
to twenty pounds of thermit. As soon as 
the molten iron solidifies around the rail 
the moulds are broken off and the weld is 
complete. Fig. 3 shows the side of a welded 
rail and Fig. 4 the operation of welding in 
actual process. 

The life of the track, it is said, depends 
upon the life of the joints and until recently 
joints were expensive, as the cheapest 
means of welding them required so much 
heavy apparatus— cupola, sand-blast ma- 
chine, clamps, dogs, moulds— all of which 




Fi^. 4. Welding VlTitHout Clamps 



so that its surface is level, and a pinch of 
ignition powder is placed in the middle of 
it and lighted by applying a Bengal storm 
match. Chemical reaction thus started is 
completed in a half minute, and a pure 



must be moved as the work progressed. 
Dr. Hans Goldschmidt, of Essen, Germany, 
who first brought the science of alumino- 
thermics to an applicable basis, says that 
for steam railroad practice it is safe to use 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Ul 




Fi^. 6. Repairing I^ocomotive Driv-in^^lVHeel 



300 feet of continuous rail with the proper 
expansion joints between eacti section; tlaat 
for interurban lines 500 feet of continuous 
rails are practicable, and that in the paved 
area of a city, where the rails are pract- 
cally covered, the work can be carried on to 
much greater extent and the welded joint 
has an electrical conductivity greater than 
the rail itself. 

Aside from welding rails, thei'mit has been 
used in an unprecedented manner for re- 
pair work. In connection with marine en- 
gineering this is especially true. The stern- 
post of the Hamburg-American liner "Se- 
villa," 9,000 tons (Fig. 5), had a fracture 
measuring 20 inches by 8 inches. Under 
ordinary conditions a new stern-post would 
have been necessary, the steamer being laid 
up in dry dock for several weeks while the 
new part was being fitted in. The part was 
welded with thermit, a crucible six feet high 
being used and 700 pounds of thermit. The 
reaction required but little more time than 
for welding a rail joint. In another instance 
a crankshaft on board a Rhine steamer was 
repaired. The steamer arrived in port at 
five p. m. of one day, and departed at ten 
next morning. In the meantime the 10-inch 
fracture in the crankshaft was repaired 
with 250 pounds of thermit in one reaction. 
Thermit was used also by the Austrian 
State Railway for repairing the spokes of a 
locomotive driving-wheel (Fig. 6). Each of 
these repairs is notable, in that had it been 
made in any other known way it would 
have required much time and expense, 
while the fact that it is possible to make a 
reliable repair in a broken crankshaft or 



other important part in mid-ocean is of 
prime importance, both to the commercial 
world and the traveling public. 

Thermit is also used for welding third 
rails and for welding pipes while in position. 
Fig. 7 shows a pipe in vertical position ready 
for welding. 

Thermit itself is in the form of a powder, 
is non-explosive and Avill not burn if 




Fig. 5. 



"Welding Stem Post of tHe 
"Sevilla»» 



142 



K N C Y C L O P E D I A 



thrown on fire. It is only is^ited by means 
of the ignition powder provided with it. It 
only burns where it touches, but is so hot 
that it will burn a hole through an iron 
plate, the edges of the hole being perfectly 
clean. Workmen engaged in the use of ther- 




Fig'. 7. Pipes R.ea<ly for IVeldinif 

mit are obliged to Avear smoked glass gog- 
gles to protect their eyes against the in- 
tense liglit and heat. 

Recently the Hartford Street Railway Com- 
pany of Hartford, Conn., used the thermit 
process for welding 162 joints on a line 
where the joints were low in many places 
and . the street along the track was paved 
with macadam. The line is laid with 6-inch 
girder rail in 30-foot lengths on standard 
wooden ties placed two feet center to center. 

The process was new to the laborers and 
a little bungling resulted at first, but several 
points which could only be learned in the 
actual execution of the process were brought 
out. For instance, it was found that the 
more thoroughly heated the ends of the rails 
were (by means of a blowpipe) the smooth- 
er the flow of the metal, so that it did not 
spatter and burn the rail and that placing 
the crucible on the ball side of the rail as far 
away from the rail as possible, greatly re- 
duced this danger also. Another impox'tant 
discovery is that after several pourings the 
asbestos Avashers cannot secure a jam fit be- 
cause the magnesite lining at the bottom of 
the crucible wears away, and the result is 



that the contents are apt to escape too 
quickly. This was remedied by^ cleaning out 
the lining with an iron rod after each pour 
and tamping the asbestos washers down. 

This company greatly reduced the expense 
of the process by substituting cast-iron 
moulds, made at the local foundi'y and cost- 
ing $1.05 each, for the usual sheet-iron 
moulds and using ordinary foundry dry sand 
as filling instead of a mixture of half clay 
and half sand. 

About every 1000 feet a slip joint— that is, 
a joint left unwelded with fishplates hot riv- 
eted to the rail and the ends of each plate 
bonded to the rail— was left to provide for 
expansion and contraction. Of the 162 
joints welded, six were spoiled in the pour- 
ing, due mostly to the fact that the process 
was new. 




MaKin^ a Potir at Hartford, Conn. 

The work was carried on in very cold 
weather when the days were short and by 
a force of fourteen men and an engineer in 
charge. Twenty joints per day were weld- 
ed. The total cost per joint under the con- 
ditions existing at Hartford was about $5. 



K N (' Y (• LO P i<: 1) r A 

TKe Undertype £lii£»ine 



143 



A. Favorite £n^lisH Ts'pe— Made in Simple and Compound 



I'he "Undertype" form of stationary en- 
gines are in considerable favor among 
Englisli builders, and thousands of these 
machines are not only in use in that coun- 
try, but the export demand for shipment to 
the colonies, particularly India and South 
Africa, is great. 

One of the strong claims for this type 
is the saving in space, and the rigidity of 



10-inch stroke, making 165 revolutions per 
minute. This engine and boiler complete 
weighs 4,600 pounds. A nominal 12 horse- 
power, effective 34 horsepower, cylinder 12 
inches, stroke 15 inches revolutions 125. 
weighs 12,100 pounds. Pressure 120 to 140 
pounds. The "outfit" is complete, including 
engine, boiler, feed pump and stack. 
The advantages claimed, says Page's Week- 




Complete Po-wrer Plant on One Frame 



the engine base frame, which is bolted se- 
curely to the boiler base, and thereby really 
made a part of it. One foundation serves 
for both engine and boiler. Both simple 
and compound types are built. 

An idea of the power relative to weight 
may be had from two examples: A nominal 
3 horsepower, with effective 8 horsepower 
has a cylinder diameter of 6^4 inches and 



ly, London— and with good reason— for the 
undertype engine, may be summarized as 
follows: Great saving of time and expense 
of fixing. Within a few hours of delivery, 
even a 200-horsepower engine of this class 
may be run into position, and the boiler 
filled up, little or no foundation beyond a 
well ballasted and level floor being required. 
The weight of the boiler and its contained 



144 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



water are amply sufficient to secure the en- 
gine against movement, wittiout being 
bolted down to tlie foundation, while the 
boiler itselJ! is absolutely free from any 
strains due to the working of the engine. 
The space occupied in proportion to the 
power developed, is considerably less than 
for any form of stationary engine with sepa- 
rate boiler. There are no exposed steam 
pipes, hence dry steam is secured— an im- 
portant advantage. The use of a brick 
chimney is dispensed with, as the iron fun- 
nel supplied with the engine can be length- 
ened to suit any situation. 

■» * » 

STEEL MAKING IN JAPAN. 



FIRE DEPARTMENT THAT NUMBERS MIL- 
LIONS 



Japan is rapidly developing its own iron 
mines, foundries and steel works. The gov- 
ernment already operates imperial works 
where pig iron, steel billets and steel rails 
are turned out. The war has diverted the 
manufactured products from those of an in- 
dustrial character to munitions of war, and 
less money has been available for extension 
of works than would otherwise have been 
the case. 

Nevertheless the enterprising little nation 
is steadily improving in the quality of its 
iron products and increasing its facilities. 
The imperial works has during the past few 
months filled 866 orders for the army and 
navy and rolled 25,000 tons of steel rail for 
the Soul-Fusau, and 6,000 tons of light rail 
for other purposes. The ores came from Jap- 
anese mines. The smelter was opened in 
April, but on account of. being used too early 
was out of service during May and June. 
Since July it has been in successful blast, 
and the output of late has been 149 tons 
of pig per day. A second smelter was 
opened in January of this year. The Bes- 
semer plant started up in May. 

The Japan Times, Tokyo, from which the 
foregoing is excerpted, says: 

"Until recently ten foreigners had been 
employed, but in March last nine of them 
were released, leaving behind only one. At 
present the foundry was not able to man- 
ufacture the armor plates required by the 
navy, the metal for the barrels of rifles, and 
railway carriage wheels, owing to the ab- 
sence of the necessary plants. But as a re- 
sult of negotiations with the military and 
naval authorities, it was arranged that from 
next year the foundry, in co-operation with 
the Kure steel foundry, should manufacture 
all the steel necessary for the construction 
of warships and firearms, and such goods 
as axles and bolts for railway purposes." 



Every Inhabitant of Austria Subject to Fire 
Service on CalL 



Austria boasts the largest fire department 
in the world, for every able-bodied citizen in 
town or rural district can be summoned by 
the mayor or chairman to perform service 
without pay. The law, however works no 
hardship, as the larger cities maintain a paid 
department and the smaller towns and vil- 
lages have excellent, well-trained volunteer 
departments, which now number over 10,- 
000, with 395,000 men. 

Special pride in taken in the "hook-ladder" 




HooK-Ladder*' IVorK 



companies, whose work is similar to that of 
our own Pompier crews. 

In every factory there are one or more vol- 
unteer companies, and throughout the coun- 
try there is a remarkable uniformity of ap- 
paratus and methods. 

The Vienna department is the one after 
which the nation patterns, and great pride 
is taken in the efficiency of even the small- 
est companies. 

A general fund for the promotion of the 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



145 



service and assistance of families of firemen 
injured or liilled while on duty is secured 
tlirougli a tax of 2 per cent of all the in- 
come of the fire insurance companies. 

Outside of its large cities probably no 
country in the world equals Austria in the 
perfection of its fire departments. 

<♦ » » 

HUGE DIAMOND WEIGHS 3,033 CARATS, 
IS REPORT. 



A huge diamond, weighing 3,023 carats and 
valued locally at $5,000,000, has been found 
in the Premier mine in the Transvaal, near 
Pretoria, is the report. Such a diamond 
"would exceed in size any other ever found. 
M. Levy, of New York and a heavy owner 
of the Premier Company, was not impressed 
by the size of the stone. He said: "There 
is no demand today for huge gems which 
kings formerly coveted. It is doubtful if a 
stone as big as the Koh-i-Noor will ever 
again be cut in its entirety. This great dia- 
mond will be divided into as many smaller 
brilliants as may be done economically." 



CLEANING THIRD RAIL WITH SOLUTION. 



The removal of sleet and ice from the 
third rail of electric roads of that type 
continues to be a troublesome problem. The 
ice cutters and thawing metliods are yet by 
no means perfect. 

A solution of caustic chloride of calcium 
mixed with wai'm water in the pi'oportion of 
38 pounds of chemical to TY2 gallons of water, 




L>ocatio>\ of Pipe 

Is being used on one of the lines running 
out of Chicago. The mixture is carried in 
tanks on the car and fed onto the rail 
through a i^-inch pipe. A gallon will cover 
a mile of rail. Very thin ice coating is en- 
tirely melted; heavier ice is softened so the 
sleet brushes clean it off. The Street Rail- 
way Journal says: "The corroding effect 



of calcium chloride on the copper is some- 
what in dispute, but by so distributing the 
solution that it does not reach the bond, any 
danger is, of course, avoided." 



HORSES RIDE IN AUTOS. 



When horses ride in automobiles the ta- 
bles may truly be said to have actually been 
turned. This very thing is actually being 
done in France. The vehicle is used for 




Palace Horse* Auto 

the transportation of valuable race horses 
when being taken from stable to depot, or 
to the race track. The entrance is at the 
rear, the door swinging down to make an 
incline. The interior is padded, and a par- 
tition can be inserted when occasion requires 
two passengers. A trap door gives the driv- 
er a chance to see that the horse is all right, 
and a feed box containing oats and another 
for hay make the trip a pleasant one. 

■» * » 

DISCOVERING PEARLS BY X-RAY. 



In a series of experiments recently con- 
ducted in Ceylon, oysters were subjected to 
the X-raj' to distinguish between those con- 
taining pearls and those containing none. 
It is said the experiments were very satis- 
factory in results. 

♦ * » 

GERMAN AUTOS UNDER $500. 



German automobile manufacturers are put- 
ting on the home and English market a 4- 
cylinder motor car, holding four persons, at 
a retail price of $486.65. If for only two 
persons the cost is $73 less. The machines 
are said to be of excellent construction and 
guaranteed to a reasonable extent. 
♦ * » 

Admiral Togo in the great naval battle 
of May, 1905, had the sun and wijid in his 
favor. 



146 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Automobile Covers a Mile in 34 1-5 Seconds 




MacKine THat Brotte A.11 R.ecords 



A new world's record in automobiling was 
made on the Ormond-Daytona (Florida) 
beacli course on January 25tb, when a Bos- 
ton automobilist, H. L. Bowdin, covered a 
mile in 34 1-5 seconds, or at the rate of 105 
miles an hour. 

The Mercedes car in which the run was 
made, known as the "Flying Dutchman II.," 
was equipped for the occasion with two 4- 
cylinder, 60-horsepower engines coupled tan- 
dem and the frame was lengthened by in- 
serting two steel plates 20 inches long in the 
center, says the Automobile. The vibration 



of the powerful machine thus fitted up is 
so great that before each trip it raust be 
gone over thoroughly and every bolt and nut 
made secure. 

Other notable runs were made by Louis 
S. Ross driving a freakish looking 20-horse- 
power steam car, called the "Teakettle," 
which made a mile in 38 seconds, and by 
Arthur McDonald, driving a 90-horsepower 
Napier a mile in 34 2-5 seconds, a close ap- 
proach to Bowdin's time. 

The aim of automobile drivers now is said 
to be two miles a minute. 



How to TelepHone 



Clear and Distinct Pronunciation Better XHan A Poiverftxl Voice** 

Germs On tbe Mouthpiece. 



There are various simple matters con- 
nected with the proper and improper use of 
the telephone, which, if generally understood 
and heeded, would make this very conven- 
ient instrument of communication, if not a 
thing of beauty and a joy forever, at least 
very much more satisfactory than many 
people now find it to be. 

One thing appears to be tolerably certain 
—that everyone does not know the way to 
get the best results. A common mistake by 
those who use the telephone is that they 
do not place the lips close enough to the 
instrument. This, perhaps, is due in many 
cases to the fact that the old style instru- 
ment was a very different thing from the 
present one. In the former case it was nec- 
essary to keep the lips some inches distant 



from the box and to speak across the open- 
ing and not into it. "Get further away from 
the 'phone" was a familiar command when 
the old style instrument was in use, and 
many old subscribers can't get over that 
"long distance habit," as the telephone par- 
lance has it, and the command to "talk 
louder" is often heard. Another reason for 
the failure to place the lips close to the 
transmitting mouthpiece is the fear of germs 
which, naturally enough, perhaps actuates 
many. 

"Public telephone users who know that 
it is necessary to get close to the 'phone," 
said an observing operator to me the other 
day, "and who object to the moist or pos- 
sibly unclean mouthpiece, often give the 
rubber piece a thorough wiping with a 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



147 



Iiandkercliief before talking. Some go even 
further and form an auxiliary mouthpiece by 
circling the rubber one with their hands, 
tlius keeping the lips entirely away from it. 
You will hear people j'elling at the top of 
their voices, though that class is diminish- 
ing every day, for it is becoming better un- 
derstood that a moderately low tone with 
the lips close to the instrument secures the 
best results." 

The operating part of the telephone mech- 
anism, the diaphragm and the carbons, are 
in the disc back of the hard rubber mouth- 
piece, and it is absolutely impossible to get 
too close to it. 

The voice of the speaker has much to do 
with the distinctness of the message. The 
worst telephone voice is the basso prof undo; 
the man who in ordinary conversation can 
be heard like a megaphone above all others 
is usually asked to repeat. He could save 
himself a lot of trouble and his listener as 
much inconvenience if he would strike a 
higher key than is natural to him. As a 
rule women's voices are the best for ordi- 
nary telephone work, but not for long dis- 
tance service. Then a strong, clear voice is 
required. Having a good telephone voice, 
however, is not the whole thing. The good 
speaker must enunciate distinctly. The one 
who jumbles his words in ordinary conver- 
sation can be understood by the person in 
front of him notwithstanding his imperfect 
manner of talking, because the listener sees 
the speaker, and the eye assists the ear, but 
on the "phone it is quite different and "Can't 
understand you" is a frequent reply. 

Defective enunciation has caused many to 
believe that certain sounds will not carry 
in the telephone, like "s" and "th," etc., but 
these sounds will carry all right and be un- 
derstood if the person who utters them does 
so distinctly. 

Said an expert: "If I were to lay down a 
rule for telephoning, I should say, keep the 
chin Avell up and speak with a large amount 
of air in the chest, articulate slowly and 
distinctly and use the lips; that is, throw 
the voice in the front part of the mouth — 
and be courteous." B. 



ANOTHER METHOD OF LIFTING 
LOADED WAGON. 



A loaded wagon may be lifted easier by 
the method shown in the accompanying 
sketch, writes C. J. Case, of Troy, Pa., than 
by the method shown in our last issue and 
contributed by Lee K. Clarke, of Bozeman, 
Montana. 



By the method here shown the crib is 
built under the wagon to full height of the 
axle bottom and the pole is then adjusted 
on the crib. Stone is then placed 
under the rim of the wheel and stone or 
wood under the other end of the pole, and 
the horses started up. If the wagon and 




I«iftini^ a LfOaded Wa^on 

load weighs 8,000 lbs., of course, the actual 
weight lifted would be approximately one- 
fourth of 8,000 or 2,000 lbs., the weight on 
one wheel. Mr. Case says he frequently 
makes use of this means to oil the wagon 
with load on. 

♦ « » 

UNIQUE FLOATING LIGHTHOUSE. . 



A new type of floating signal or buoy has 
been adopted by the English Lighthouse 
Board, and the one illustrated herewith has 




Lfi^Kt Burns 31 Das^s 

been placed outside the Portsmouth harbor. 
It can be seen a long distance in day time, 
and at night burns a powerful oil lamp, 
which requires filling only once in 31 days. 



148 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



ICE BOX WITHOUT ICE. 



Miniature Refrigerating System for the 
Home. 



It is now possible to keep your ice box at 
a temperature of from 35 to 40 degrees 
throughout the year, without ever hanging 
out the ice sign or having the drain pipe 
stop up on you. Not only that, but no im- 




Cold Storage at Home 

pure ice can endanger tlie family's health, 
and the supply of cold never gives out. 

The above results are accomplished by a 
small portable refrigerating plant, either 
built into a box or applied to the one al- 
x'eady in use, and which is a miniature of the 
great ice-making and cold storage plants 
manufacturing artificial ice or cooling great 
buildings. 

The power to operate the cooling process 
may be either a small gasoline engine, or if 
the house is lighted with electricity a small 
electric motor is recommended. When 
started the machine runs continuously with 
very little attention. With the exception of 
filling the oil cups once or twice a week 
there is really nothing to do. 

The cooling liquid is forced through the 
refrigerator in pipes, and while it cools does 
not produce the moisture and consequent 
dampness occasioned by the use of ice. 
About one-half laorsepower is required for 
the work where it is desired to manufacture 
20 pounds of ice per day for the table, and 
less power where the refrigerator is used as 



cold storage only. It is said the cost of 
operating the outfit is no more than is usu- 
ally paid for ice during a season. 

♦*♦ 

FUNERAL SERMON PREACHED BY 
TELEPHONE. 



In Des Moines, Iowa, recently, the funeral 
services for a young girl who had died of 
diphtheria were conducted over the tele- 
phone, the minister preaching to two audi- 
ences, one at the house and one at the 
church. The girl had requested that the 
funeral sermon be preached at the house, 
and as friends could not attend because of 
the nature of the disease, this expedient was 
used. The minister preached at the church 
end of the line, with the aid of a megaphone. 



LOCOMOTIVE THAT EXHAUSTS 
DOWNWARD. 



A freak locomotive has been used in the 
construction of the New York subway. In 
order not to coat the white roof of the tun- 
nel with a liberal layer of soot and dirt. This 
engine does not absorb its own smoke, but 
does the next best thing, and by means of 
the curious stack extension shown in the 
illustration exhausts underneath itself and 
toward the rear. Locom.otive Engineering 



H 


■I 


I^^H 




-'^^ma^^ '■' 


i9rl 


f" 'ig^Wn""".- :l^ 


■ _.^^ 


w 




' 



TKe Freak I«ocoinotive 

says: "When running forward this locomo- 
tive can do what few other locomotives can 
do— it can run over its own smoke." 

•♦ * » 

The value of the electrical manufactures 
in this country during 1904 is estimated at 
$230,500,000. Of this amount dynamos and 
motors of gjl kinds amounted to $51,000,000. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



149 



ICE PUNCH FOR HEAVY 
ICE. 



Users of water power, 
and not only the smaller 
ones, experience constant 
trouble with ice forming 
at the intake. Frequently 
it is no easy matter to get 
at the trouble, and a cor- 
respondent of the Ameri- 
can Miller sends a sketch 
of a home-made machine 
which is guaranteed to 
break holes every time. 

The drawings will give 
a very good idea of what 
is required. Old shafting, 
two inches or more in di- 
ameter and of any length, 
may be used, as required. 
Any old gear lying around 
the mill will do for the 
windlass. The only new 
part required will be a 
self - trip hook. The 
heavier the bar the better 
the punch. 




ice PuzxcH for Heavy Ice 



TESTING CONCRETE BLOCKS. 



Concrete blocks may be tested by means 
of a screw-jack and 5-ton platform scales in 
the manner shown in the sketch, says Henry 
W. Edwards of Grand Junction, Colo., and 
the test may be relied upon for all ordinary 
purposes. 

The mixture to be tested should be 
rammed in a wooden box 9 in. square by 
30 in. long, inside measurement, and allowed 
to stand for several days or weeks until set. 
It is then subjected to pressure in the appa- 




ratus shown, and the moment cracks appear 
on either of the visible sides of the block 
being tested, the pressure exerted by the 
screw-jack should be read off on the scale 
beam. This is not the ultimate crushing 
strength of the block— that can rarely be 
ascertained— but affords a comparative test 
of the tensile strength of the block, which is 
sufficient for ordinary pui-poses. 

■♦ « » 

DEAD BLACK COLORING FOR IRON. . 



For Testing Concrete BlocKa 



Clean all grease and dirt from the metal 
to be blackened, and apply, either with a 
brush or by dipping the article in the 
liquid, the following compound: One part 
bismuth chloride; 2 parts mercury bichlo- 
ride; 1 part copper chloride; 6 parts hydro- 
chloric acid; 5 parts alcoliol; 52 parts water, 
thoroughly mixed. 

After applying the liquid place the metal 
in boiling water and let it remain therein 
at that temperature for a half-hour. Re- 
peat this operation until the color is deep 
enough, and then fix the color by placing 
the article for a few minutes in a bath of 
boiling oil. After removing, heat until the 
oil is completely driven off. This method 
is recommended by the Blacksmith and 
■Wheelwright. 



150 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



TOOLS FOR CLEANING SEWERS. 



Sewers frequently get choked up and 
cause no end of trouble, but bow they are 
again put in service is something unknown 
to but few outside those who make a spe- 
cialty of such work. The tools required are 
ranch more numerous than might be sup- 




Operates Semrer Cleaning Tools 

posed, and many special instruments have 
to be kept on hand for use when ordinary 
means fail. The Municipal Engineer illus- 
trates some of the new "specials" which any 
expert sewer engineer will know how to 
make and use. 

No. 1 is a root cutter, which will prove a 
valuable aid to the many engineers and sew- 
er superintendents who have trouble with 
tree roots growing through defective pipe 
joints or open joints in small brick sewers. 

No. 2 is a scraper for removing deposits 
of the softer materials which are still too 
dense or too sticky for flushing out. 



No. 3 is a corkscrew which will penetrate 
any bundle of rags or paper and either pull 
it out or disintegrate it. 

No. 4 is a plunger which is of special value 
in conduits to remove roughness when they 
have not been thoroughly cleaned before 
laying. 

No. 5 is a chisel for use in breaking off 
hard cement left on unwiped joints, which 
projects and catches rags, papers, etc. It will 
also serve to cut off hard materials which 
have caught in open places in joints. A cor- 
set steel has been known to stop a pipe 
sewer by catching in such an opening in a 
joint and serving as a hook on which to 
hang a miscellaneous lot of obstructions that 
followed. 

No. 6 is a brush which easily removes the 
accumulations of grease on the walls of 
sewers near hotels, boarding houses and 
certain manufacturing plants. 

No. 7 is a claw which is sometimes needed 
in place of the scraper, No. 2, and may stir 
up such soft- but adhesive materials as do 
not yield readily to the scraper, when they 
may be flushed or scraped out. 

No. 8 is a scoop for rempving deposits 
of sand from sewers. It sometimes happens. 




Curious Special Tools Used in Cleaning Se'wrers 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



151 



especially in new sewers, tliat a heavy rain- 
fall will wash deposits of sand, gravel or 
clay into a long line of pipe, practically fill- 
ing it. These deposits are hard to remove in 
pipe sewers and in the smallter brick sewers. 
The scoop can be operated for several hun- 
dred feet successfully, though slowly. 

All these tools are fitted with socliets for 
use Avith the Felton coupling for sewer rods, 



which permits any desired manipulation of 
the tool on the end of a string of rod sec- 
tions and at the same time makes easy the 
removal of the rod in sections at a manhole. 
The coupling is shown in the smaller of the 
accompanying cuts. It can be used also for 
pushing a lantern through a sewer for the 
discovery of leaks or surreptitious connec- 
tions, whether in pipe or brick sewers. 



An Electric Bakery- 



Niagara Falls has an electric bakery. Not 
only are the various machines for mixing 
the dough, rolling out and cutting into form, 
performed by machines operated by electric 
power, but an immense oven is heated by 
the electric current. No smell of smoke, no 
dust from ashes is known; when the baker 
wants to bake he simply touches a button 
and in a few moments the oven is in a glow. 

Electric current is cheap in Niagara, for 
thousands of horsepower are being con- 
stantly generated at practically no operating 
expense. Water that formerly went plung- 
ing over tlie Falls is now turned from its old 
course and sent through giant turbines 
which turn the generators and produce the 
electricity which operates all the industries 
of the town, and many others in Buffalo, 20 



miles away, including all the street cars of 
that city. 

Broadly speaking, the cost to the ordinary 
consumer of electricity for cooking, ranges 
from eight cents to 15 cents per kilowatt- 
hour, says the Western Electrician. At 
Niagara Falls, however, the current is gen- 
erated so cheaply that it is supplied in some 
instances as low as four cents. It is not 
improbable that there are other places in 
this country where waterpower is available 
to operate generating units at such a low 
cost that current can be used in the vicinity 
for domestic purposes as well as for operat- 
ing machinery and illumination. Conse- 
quently we may first expect to see it used 
extensively in communities which are ad- 
jacent to such sources of power, 




THe £lectric BaKery at Nia^ar? 



152 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



LIGNITE FOR LOCOMOTIVE FUEL. 



A substitute for coal and wood has long 
been sought, especially in countries far from 
coal deposits. 

Railroads in Colorado, Wyoming and the 
Southwest have experimented with lignite, 
a fuel half way between peat and coal in 
composition. Taking 100 parts, it is made 
up as follows: Carbon, 40 parts; easily eva- 




Spiral Corrugated Tube 

porated matter, 32 parts; water, 20 parts; 
ash, 8 parts. 

An attempt to partly dry and press into 
small bricks some Wyoming lignite, resulted 
in making it cost $1.60 per ton, while coal 
mined in the same region costs $1.10 per ton. 

Being light, lignite throws out many 
sparks when burned in locomotives. To pre- 
vent this, the old diamond stack with cone 
and netting in it is used, air openings in the 
grate are fine, and the ashpan is almost 
closed. This hinders the draft, so a small 
exhaust nozzle is used to produce it. Less- 
ened locomotive power results from the 
small amount of heat in the lignite, inability 
to force the fire, and back pressure in the 
cylinder. A Wooten boiler having a large 
grate has yielded good results, but the best 
have been obtained with locomotives having 
spirally corrugated boiler tubes. 

Instead of passing straight through the 
tubes and out, the sparks follow the spiral 




Grate for Stoves 

groove, and cool off. Advantages gained 
are: Freedom from spark danger, enlarged 
exhaust nozzle, ability to haul heavier loads 
and a higher speed. 

With this outlook, more locomotives are 
being fitted with corrugated tubes, and in 
time lignite may become an economical rail- 
road fuel. 



It is now possible to burn the lignite In 
stoves and house furnaces, but special 
grates have to be used. Lignite burns with 
a fine white ash, but requires a generous 
supply of air. 

» » » 

REIVLA-RKABLE CURES WITH ELECTRIC 
LIGHT. 



Apparatus by Which Four Patients are Treated 
at the Same Time 



No hospital in England or on the conti- 
nent is now considered up-to-date without 
an equipment of the Finsen light apparatus 
for the treatment of lupus. Dr. Finsen^ the 
inventor, died a few months ago, but the 
improvements he would have made, had he 
lived, are being effected by his enthusiastic 
followers. 

The illustration from the Electrical Re- 
view, London, shows the latest type of the 
apparatus by which four patients may re- 
ceive treatment at the same time. Sus- 
pended from a strong support is an arc lamp 
of extremely high candle-power, around 
which is suspended a heavy metal cylinder, 
serving to carry the telescopes and the nec- 
essary pipes and taps for the water-cooling 
of the telescopes and compressors, through 
which the rays pass before reaching the pa- 
tient. The telescopes are constructed of 
brass barrel, with rock crystal lenses to con- 
centrate the rays of the arc lamp. At the end 
of each telescope nearest the lamp a space 
is left between two of the lenses, which 
is filled with distilled water; around this a 
water jacket is fitted, to permit of the cir- 
culation of running water from the main 
supply, in order to keep it cool. The dis- 
tilled water fulfills the double purpose of 
eliminating some of the heat rays, and of 
preventing the top lens from cracking owing 
to its exposure to the great heat from the 
arc lamp. At the other end of the telescope, 
for a space of about 12 in., between two 
more lenses, is a column of distilled water, 
which absorbs further heat rays. Around 
the four telescopes are arranged couches on 
which the patients lie whilst under treat- 
ment; the part to be treated is brought to 
the point of convergence of the rays through 
the telescope, and compressors consisting of 
rock crystal lenses, between which a stream 
of water is continually circulating, are 
pressed firmly on the skin, in order to ren- 
der it anaemic, as the presence of red fluid 
would prevent the ultra-violet rays from 
properly penetrating. Here occurs the final 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



153 




exclusion of the heat rays, and the chemical 
rays alone reach the patient. By an in- 
genious arrangement, the fullest use is made 
of the light from the lamp, so that the cur- 



rent consumption is about 50 amperes only, 
as against 70 or 80, or even more, in the 
older types. The worst skin diseases are 
cured by this treatment. 



EXPERIMENTS PROVE THAT CONCRETE 
PRESERVES METALS FROM RUST. 



That concrete preserves iron and steel and 
prevents it from rusting at all, even though 
it be partly rusted when imbedded in the 
concrete, is proven by two interesting ex- 
periments made by the Boston Transit Com- 
pany during the construction of the East 
Boston tunnel. 

Nine strips of sheet iron, 2 in. x 6 in., were 
cleaned till bright and free from rust and 
imbedded in a hollow cylinder of concrete, 
14 in. by 20 in., outside dimensions, the walls 
being 3 in. thick. When hardened this cylin- 
der was kept filled with water and placed 
in the tunnel. For a while water percolated 
through the concrete readily, but at the end 



of two months it had become watertight. At 
the end of two years the nine strips were 
removed and found to be as free from rust 
and as bright as when placed in the con- 
crete cylinder. 

In the other experiment a badly rusted 
square plate was cleaned by filing so that 
its general surfaces were bright, but rust re- 
mained in many small pits. This was imbed- 
ded in a block of concrete, placed in water 
for two days and then dried in air several 
days. This wetting and di*ying process was 
kept up for two years, when the plate was 
removed. Its condition was the same as 
when placed in the concrete except that the 
composition of the old rust had changed 
some so that its color was yellow instead 
of reddish brown as formerly. 



154 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Po^verful Winter Car Ferries for Detroit River. 




LrauncKin^ the " 

Powerful car ferries at Detroit are tlie con- 
necting link between Canada and the United 
States for several important railways. The 
current in the Detroit river is very strong, 
and when great windrows of ice form ex- 
ceptionally strong vessels are necessary to 
combat these forces. 

The Michigan Central Railway system re- 
cently launched at Detroit a powerful new 
car ferry, christened ''Detroit of Detroit," 
and especially fitted for the hard winter 



Detroit of Detroit" 

work on the river. The boat measures 308 
feet in length on deck, is of 64-foot beam 
and 191/^ feet deep. It has two propellers at 
each end, which are operated independently 
by means of compound engines, having cy- 
linders 24 and 48 inches in diameter by 33 
inches stroke. The steam plant consists of 
two double-ended boilers, 13 feet by 12 feet, 
and two single-ended boilers, 13 feet by 11% 
feet. It is said these big ferries rarely fail 
to make the trip across the river. 



HANDS ENJOY NOON-DAY PERFORM- 
ANCES. 



Impromptu concerts and vaudeville per- 
formances is the means hy which employes 
of a Milwaukee ice-machine building plant 
begiiile their noon hour. The hands volun- 
teer to perform, and it is rare that some 
outside influence draws one away. The bit 
of noon-day pleasure relaxes tired bodies, 
employers say, and leaves the men in a 
happy and contented frame of mind. 



THE AUTOMOBILE SHOWS. 



The recent annual automobile shows in 
New York and Chicago attracted thousands 
of visitors to inspect larger exhibits than ever 
before. The motor launch is steadily grow- 
ing in popularity and is impi'oving in speed 
and comfort. The 1905 types of autos show 
a decided improvement in standards of 



workmanship. Experts estimate the proba- 
ble sales of automobiles during this year at 
about $30,000,000. There is a growing 
tendency to place the motor in an upright 
position in preference to the horizontal. 
♦ • » 

HUGE MAUSOLEUM PLANNED FOR 
CHICAGO. 

A huge mausoleum with catacombs and 
crypts, patterned after that of AVestminster 
Abbey, and costing $150,000, is the project 
of the Montrose Cemetery Association of 
Chicago. The plan is unique in this country, 
though there are few American cities where, 
because of the nature of the earth and the 
presence of water at a short depth, burial 
above ground is practiced exclusively. This 
is true of New Orleans. The crypts in the 
Chicago mausoleum, it is said, will be sold at 
$1,000 each. There will be in all 108 indi- 
vidual catacombs. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



155 



THE KERR COMPOUND STEAM TURBINE. 



Drawings liere given show the interior 
plans of a recently invented 10,000 horse- 
power steam turbine, which uses Bclton 
buckets on the rim of a disk, against which 
steam from nozzles is directed. 

In a recent article Power says: "The tur- 
bine is made up of a number of chambers, 
in eaclj of which revolves one or more buck- 
et-bearing disks, the number being deter- 
mined by the amount of steam expansion 
for which the turbine is designed." 

The buckets. Fig. 1, are double, elliptical 
in shape, and sharply curved at the bottom. 
The steam from the nozzles is divided at 
the point of connection of the two buckets, 
which later are riveted, B, or dove tailed, 
A, to the disk. A nozzle, D, is provided for 
each stage of steam expansion, and steam 
admission is hand regulated. 

Six different expansions are arranged for 
in Figs. 2 and 3, the first two chambers hav- 
ing single disks, the next two, two disks, 
and the last two, three disks. Steam enters 
at E and passes to steam chest and through 
the nozzles to the buckets. Exhausting at 
F, it enters the next apartment, goes half 
round and again exhausts, so continuing to 
the final outlet. The disks are all of like 
diameters, hence the buckets all travel at 
the same speed. It is planned to have the 
speed one-half that of the steam jet flow- 
ing through the nozzle from one stage to 
the next. The areas of the jets and buckets 
are progressively increased to allow the en- 
tering steam to pass with this velocity. If 



this condition is maintained, the steam will 
be discharged from each set of buckets 
practically at rest, having delivered all its 
energy to the disk, and by dividing the tur- 
bine into a sufficient number of stages this 
velocity gan be kept within required limits. 




Fig. 1. 



Tbe Kerr Compound Steam 
Turbine BucKets 



In the turbine illustrated the bucket disks 
are 8 feet in diameter, the inlet pipe 8 inch- 
es and the exhaust 36 inches in diameter, 
designed to expand steam of 200 pounds 
pressure to an absolute pressure of two 
pounds. 



When a good razor paste is needed use 
the grit from a fine grindstone. 




Fig. «. 



Tig, a. 



156 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



IGNITION FOR MULTIPLE CYLINDER 
ENGINES. 



The jump-spark systeai seems to have 
proved itself satisfactory to automobile 
builders, and a large number of the 1905 
machines will use it. 

The magnetic spark plug has worked well 
on slow speed engines, but it is unsatisfac- 
tory on automobile and launch motors with 



l//bt, 



Fig. 1 




fljiusttnent 



^=-J To f Tiai 71 e- 



varying speed. A perfect make and break 
timing device is needed to make it a suc- 
cess on these latter. 

A well-known American automobile build- 
er will use the alternating magneto this 
year. This gives a timed jump-spark, but 
the trouble here lies in the fact that its 
magnets sometimes lose their magnetism 
and have to be remagnetized at the factory. 

In the Automobile Review, R. L. Hubler 
says that the ideal ignition outfit for multi- 
ple cylinder engines should consist of a stor- 
age battery for furnishing current to the 
coil, and a dynamo to recharge this battery. 

A storage battery gives a large, hot spark, 
but used alone, it must be recharged, 
whether convenient or not. 




4 connection ju*njy s/>arJ^ coi-Zs, 

Fig. 2 

Using the storage battery only to start 
the engine would cTd, if the voltage of the 
battery were always as high as that of the 




■yniema iZynamc. 



lioor enS 



^roitnae^' 









•>'«.?•» 



I eylinae>- 



3. 



ffroundedf 




ipitcgS' 



yu,m/> sjaarA coit 

Fig. 3 



dynamo. As, after use, it might not be, 
switching from one source of current to the 
other would cause trouble with the vibra- 
tors (Fig. 1). The best way seems to be to 
use the battery current for ignition, leaving 
the dynamo to charge the battery when 
necessary. 

Fig. 2 shows the wiring plan for a four- 
cylinder engine using four single coils. To- 
day, short circuit troubles may be banished 
by using well insulated timing devices. 

Fig. 3 shows wiring for a single coil on a 
four-cylinder engine. Apple's timing device, 
here used, distributes the current to the 
cylinders at the same time that it times the 
current from the battery. The cost is less 
and only one vibrator requires attention. 

The complete ignition outfit of this type, 
consisting of the ignition dynamo, six-volt 
storage battery, coil, timing device, switch 
and plugs costs about $60.00. The user need 
buy no primary batteries, he has a simple 
apparatus, and two sources from which to 
get a spark. 



CONCRETE FOR PAVING STREETS. 



Concrete street pavements are being test- 
ed in Bellefontaine, Ohio, and other cities, 
so far with satisfactory results. Asphalt, 
Avhich is generally regarded as the ideal 
paving is A^ery expensive, soon wears out, 
and has a tendency to get slippery when 
wet. 

Concrete is both artistic and economical. 
For a street pavement smooth cement sur- 
faces would not afford a good footing but 
the surfaces could be moulded with shallow 
corrugations and the result be a pavement 
adapted to all kinds of vehicles. Concrete 
is so easy to repair and so strong even if 
undermined that the idea seems a good one, 
but of course, like every other pavement 
ever laid, can only be properly tested by 
time and use. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



157 



HOW WOODWORK IS SET ON FIRE BY 
STEAM. 



PORTABLE ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS. 



Mysterious fires occur occasionally, when 
it seems impossible to trace their origin. A 
large and elegant dwelling house in New 
Yorlv was not long since burned, and it was 
found that the fire was caused by a steam 
drum in contact with wood, with which it 
was encased. The manner in which a heat 
of less than scorching intensity sets fire to 
woodwork is not generally known. The con- 
ditions to produce this are, first, a degree 
of heat not less than 212 degrees; second, 
the presence of wood in close proximity to 



A portable electric power plant with all 
its parts constructed to withstand the strain 
of hauling over rough roads from point to 
point as required, is a new and interesting 
development in this line. The plant is 
mounted on a steel truck, which is fitted 
with a top and curtains for protection 
against the elements and the whole appara- 
tus can be drawn by two horses. 

The outfit is efficiently used for operating 
electric tools, temporary electric lighting and 
like purposes. It consists of a 22-horsepow- 
er gasoline engine having no water pipes or 




Courtesy of the Foos Gas Engine Company 
Portable Electric Power Plant 



the iron steam pipes; third, the existence of 
scale or rust on the iron; fourth, varying 
temperature. The heat drives the oxygen 
from the iron rust, which then becomes 
what is known as reduced iron, a finely di- 
vided metallic powder of the natural color 
of iron. The heat necessary to ignite the 
wood, which is in a tinder-like condition, 
from its proximity to the hot pipe, is gen- 
erated in the rapid oxidation of the iron. It 
absorbs oxygen so rapidly under certain 
amospheric conditions of humidity and tem- 
perature as to glow for a few seconds, long 
enough to set the adjoining wood on fire. 
The greatest caution should be exercised in 
installing heating systems to allow ample 
space between steam heating pipes and ad- 
jacent woodwork. 



connections which are liable to freeze, but 
having a special design of cylinder and 
water jackets, which carry enough water to 
cool the cylinder. The water has a free 
passage to the air and maintains an even 
temperature. Water must be added to 
make up for loss by evaporation, but no 
other attention is required in this respect. 
A water glass in the cylinder gauges the 
height of the water. The gasoline engine 
is belted to a dynamo of the same capacity. 

» < » 

An electric railway to carry passengers 
up Mt. Blanc is the project of a Paris com- 
pany. The line will end at the Aiguilles du 
Gouter, 14,430 ft. above sea level. This will 
be the greatest enterprise of its kind. It is 
said there will be but one tunnel. 



158 



E N C: Y C L P E 1) I A 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 



159 



REMARKABLE ROLLING LIFT BRIDGE AT 
CLEVELAND. 



CONCRETE NOT PROOF AGAINST FUNGOID 
GROWTH. 



Longest Simple Truss Span Sherzer Bridge 
Ever Built. 



A new railroad bridge at Cleveland, Ohio, 
ha.s a movable span 160 feet in length from 
center to center of bearings. The bridge is a 
donble-track rolling lift structure and is built 
at an angle of 60 degrees 30 minutes 30 sec- 
onds in order to meet the requirements of 
the city of Cleveland and the War Depart- 
ment calling for a clear channel for naviga- 
tion 120 feet wide. 

The bridge is operated by two 50-horse- 
power continuous current motors and all 
operating machinery and motors are placed 
upon the movable span. The pinion at the 
center of the rolling segment, engages with 
the rack which is fixed and supported along- 
side the girder; this is said to simplify both 
machinery and operation and shorten the 
total length of bridge required. Despite the 
strong operating power provided, the bridge, 
in ordinary weather, is operated by less than 
20 horsepower. 

When closed the tracks interlock with the 
mechanism for locking the bridge so that it 
cannot be operated before the proper signals 
are given. Derailing tracks also prevent the 
passage of trains. 

The structure is designed to carry two 
1771/^-ton locomotives drawing a uniform load 
of 5,000 pounds per lineal foot on each track: 
the rails weigh 100 pounds per yard. The 
bridge is supported by Portland cement con- 
crete piers resting on piles. 

♦-»-♦ 

STERLING SILVER FURNITURE FOR AN 
ORIENTAL PALACE. 



A suite of sterling silver furniture, com- 
prising two ordinary easy chairs, two couch- 
es, four tables, a dressing table and a large 
cabinet, all modeled and chased in the Louis 
period style, has recently been made in Lon- 
don for the palace of an Oriental magnate, 
says the Keystone. 

The pieces are upholstered in dark blue 
plush at present, but a rich silk brocade is 
to replace this. Several of the maker's best 
artists are now engaged in decorating a 
sterling silver bedstead, also. Four emble- 
matical figures, each 2 feet 9 inches high will 
surmount the pedestal at each cornei-, and 
the panels are decorated with studies after 
the pictures "Somnus" and -'Dancing 
Nymphs," by Albert Moore, E.. A. 



Rats cannot gnaw through concrete, but 
fungus can grow through it. There was a 
remarkable instance of this found in Ports- 
mouth, England, recently, where a fungoid 




Ftxn^tis Oroivini^ THrou^H Concrete 

growth forced its way through three inches 
of concrete and two inches of asphalt, thus 
showing the great leverage of growing 
plants. The fungus was a mass 30 inches 
in circumference and grew to a height of 
9 inches. 



LARGEST DAM IN THE WORLD FINISHED. 



The huge Cornell dam, with the exception 
of the Egyptian pyramids, the largest piece 
of masonry in the world, is at last com- 
pleted. On Jan. 31 the flood gates were shut 
down for the first time. It will take two 
years for the reservoir to fill and it will 
form a lake 16 miles long, and the sites of 
several towns which were abandoned for it 
will be flooded. The dam has been under 
construction for 10 years and cost $9,000,000. 



The submarine boat "Simon Lake X." in 
submerging tests made at Newport News a 
few days ago, broke the record formerly 
held by the French tyv^ submarine. The 
''Simon Lake X" was submerged 38 ft. and 
returned to the surface in just 30 seconds. 



160 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

HoMT to Make Emmery WKeels 



We want first to observe the different 
forms of grinding by means of the emery 
wheel, and construct our wheel accordingly. 
There are flat surface grinding in which 
the emery wheel is utilized for general 
grinding, cylindrical grinding in which the 
wheel and the work are rotated, and com- 
mon tool grinding in which the processes 





^ ^ ^ 



Fig. 6 



of tool sharpening form the main work. It 
might be well to refer also to the smoothing 
of surfaces with grinding wheels of emery, 
as the emery wheel of modern times is used 
for this duty quite frequently. In fact, the 
modern emery wheel has supplanted many 
other forms of tools and devices in shops 
and mills for grinding purposes. For this 
reason,, it is a good idea for the technically 



inclined man to be familiar with the con- 
struction of the modern emery wheel. 

First of all, we want the substantial 
emery wheel, with the powerful frame, the 
necessary attachments, and the correct com- 
position. Such wheels are usually built up 
in the shop. There are several designs of 
the wheels possible to make and the at- 
tached illustrations are suggestions in this 
line. The composition of the body of the 
wheel may be wood, built up leather disks, 
or hard rubber, etc. The ingredients em- 
ployed are glue, litharge, silicate of soda, 
and celluloid. 

Fig. 1 shows the common piece of block, 
hardwood selected because it is well sea- 
soned, free from knots and flaws, excep- 
tionally tough in fiber and possesses other 
features that a reliable wood should have 
for an emery wheel base. The tougher the 
fiber, the better. The wheel may be turned 
down in circular form by means of the 
lathe and the disk used entire. In some 
places, however, the disk is made up by 
using separate V-shaped pieces, one of 
which is shown in Fig. 2. This piece is in 
readiness for insertion in the general body 
forming the cylinder. Then when all of 
the pieces are joined on the common metal 
hub with its flanges, the flange bolts are 
put through and tightened and we have a 
body work as in Fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows the 
plan of the flange. There is one of these 
flanges for either side of the wood. This 
holds the separate wood pieces in line. 

Capped Journals. 

A good type of iron -capped journal to 
sustain the shaft of the wheel, so that the 
wheel may be put in position for covering 
with the emery is shown in Fig 5. These 
journals can be purchased from almost any 
machine builder. The arrangement of the 
journals on the stand of the emery wheel 
is shown in Fig. 6, the box bearings being 
marked B, B. The shaft is provided with 
a tight and a loose wheel at C and by the 
use of these wheels with proper belt and 
shifter, the emery wheel can be started and 
stopped at will. 

The emery wheel itself is marked A. 
Some of the wheels are first wound with 
textile fabric, such as strong duck, or sim- 
ilar cloth, about the cylinder, previous to 
applying the emery. The process of wind- 
ing a wheel with texture, paper, sheet rub- 
ber, or leather is shown in Fig. 7, Usually 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



IGl 



the base of paper, cloth, rubber or leather 
is secured with cords wound on, and the 
cord-winding operation is conducted on 
practically the same lines of operation as 
the paper or cloth winding. The emery 
wheel proper is placed in its frame and set 
up as at D Fig. 7. Then a crank E is set- 
screwed or keyed to the emery wheel shaft 
and this crank is used to turn the wheel. 
Sometimes a pulley is fixed to the shaft in- 
stead of the crank and the wheel is operated 
with a belt. With the power belt, more 
strain can be secured on the winding parts 
and a better and tighter operation result. 
The line of the goods in process of winding 
from the rolls to the wheel is indicated at 
F, and at G. These rolls are properly 
"braked" so as to make the winding firm. 

Ready For The Emery. 

The next process involves the application 
of the emery. Fig. 8 is a cross sectional cut 
through the center of the wheel. The shaft 
is marked H and the wooden V-shaped 
pieces, which are held in position in disk 
form by the flanges are indicated J. The 
wound cords on the surface are marked K; 
the flanges, I, I; the stands for the bear- 
ings of the shaft, L, and the crank for turn- 
ing the affair is at M. The glutinous mat- 
ter on the rope surface for the purpose of 
retaining the emery may now be applied. 
There are men who manage to do good 
work with the common brush and common 
glue pot, while others need specially made 
devices. The common glue brush, however, 
can be made to do the work satisfactorily. 
Riggings of tanks and burners are some- 
times arranged, at considerable cost, to de- 
posit glue liquids over the turning cylinder 
below; this being followed by the applica- 
tion of the chosen emery. A good-sized glue 
pot with the usual means of keeping the 
contents at an even temperature is just as 
good. Apply the glue with a brush like the 
one shown in Fig. 10 and rub the surfaces 
with a scrub-brush similar to the one in 
Fig 11. 

For a distribution of the emery, a regular 
emery distributer may be purchased or a 
device like that in Fig. 9 may be made. 
This is simply a tank made of sheet metal, 
with parting walls between each of the 
gauges. The gauges are simply pieces of 
flat metal inside the reservoirs which may 
be tilted to the right or left by means of 
the wheels at N. By tilting one way or the 
other, the channels controlling the flow of 
emery are opened or closed and the flow of 
emery governed thereby. The flow of the 



emery is downward by gravitation through 
the nozzles P, to the revolving emery wheel 
surface a little below. Thus the scattering 
of the emery is accomplished. In regard to 
the grade of emery to select, the coarse 
No. 36, if for a rasp-like face, or the fine 
No. 120 emery, if for polishing and buffing 
purposes, will be required. No. 90 to No. 
120 include the sizes most in demand for 
ordinary work. The numbers indicate the 
size of the grains of emery. No. 120 means 




Fig. 8 



)Ki 



t rFig-9' 





fig. 10 



Fig. 11 Fig. 12 



an emery ground so fine it will pass through 
a mesh or sieve having 120 wires to the 
square inch. The No. 36 is the size passing 
through a mesh formed by using 36 wires 
to the square inch. The dead smooth sizes 
can be made up for practical use as well as 
the exceedingly coarse numbers. But these 
extremes are not much used. As a rule the 
common bastard, second cut, smooth cut, 
etc., are in common use. It is not often 
that the dead smooth wheel can be used. 



162 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



while one of the medium sizes is very fre- 
quently needed. 

Evening Off. 

One of the final operations is the evening 
off of the surfaces. This has been done 
very suceessfully with processes that in- 
volve the placing of the wheel in a lathe 
and turning it down with steel cutting tools. 
But this process requires an expert and the 
best of tools and contrivances. The ordinary 
machinist simply builds an evener similar 
to the one shown in Fig. 12. First construct 
a wooden frame about 2 ft. long and 10 in. 
wide. This is made of a piece of hardwood 
board, with two end pieces the same width 
as the board screwed on as shown. These 
end pieces form the support for the emery 
cloth, so called. This emery cloth is usually 
a leather base, on which the emery of de- 
sired fineness is scattered after the proper 
glue surfacing is made. This part is marked 
R. After a little use the constant pres- 
sure of the wheel on the leather causes the 
leather to assume the partly oval condition 
shown. There should be a wooden handle 
secured to the board top as shown, so that 
the user may have a good grip on the de- 
vice. The device is held in one hand against 
the revolving surface of the emery wheel 
and the necessary fineness of finish is 
ground on in 9 little while. All lumps and 
uneven places are ground off quite speedily. 
The emery wheel is then ready for use. 



METAL 



COSTUME PROTECTS AGAINST 
ELECTRIC SHOCK. 



A German inventor has produced a metal 
dress which is said to protect the human 
body against powerful electric currents. 
Hitherto rubber gloves have been the means 
of protection employed by electricians and 
the number of deaths resulting from acci- 
dental contact has been great. 

The new electricity resisting dress is de- 
signed on the principle that metal is a better 
conductor than the human body. It is made 
of woven metal, or fine wire gauze, and is 
so supple that the movements of the body 
are unrestricted. The garment is worn 
either underneath or over the clothing. In 
testing the device the inventor, clothed in 
the metal garb, received a shock of 150,000 
volts, the current passing through the metal 
dress and not affecting its wearer. Fre- 
quently a 500-volt current will kill a human 
being. Electricians of several large German 
works have adopted the costume; but the 




IVoven Metal Costume for Elec- 
tricians. 

average American electrician will give one 
look at it and go on taking chances. 

♦ » » 

FIRST TURBINE STEAMER TO MAKE 
LONG VOYAGE. 



Australia's first turbine steamer the "Loon- 
gana" was recently finished in England and 
covered the distance from the English dock 
to Australia in 32 days, 1 hour, 24 minutes 
(actual steaming time). The machinery 
worked without a hitch throughout. The 
first 3,300 miles were covered at a speed of 
16 knots and 410 miles at a speed of 17 
knots. 

The vessel is 300 feet long, 43-foot beam 
and 12 feet deep in the water. She is to be 
used for the speedy transit of malls up the 
Tamar river to Launceston, Tasmania. 
♦ * » 

Admiral Rojestvensky lost the great naval 
battle by the inferiority of the Russian 
gunnery. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 163 

HoMT to Make a Portable Electric Heater 



By Harry H. Townsend. 



Anyone can make the portable electric 
heater described below, without the use of 
an ohmmeter or the necessary apparatus 
for finding the resistance of wire. The con- 
struction is very simple and the materials 
required few and inexpensive. 

Select tw^o boards 17% in. long by 6% in. 
wide by % in. thick; dress and sandpaper 
one side of the best of the two boards. 
These are for the top and bottom, and must 
be nice and smooth. 

Select four pieces 914 in. long, % in. thick 
and 1% in. wide; these pieces are for the 
standards that hold the top and bottom 
boards together. They must be set or 
screwed to the top and bottom boards, as 
indicated in Fig. 1. 

A, B, C and D are the four pieces for the 
uprights; these must be set perpendicular 
to the bottom board and must fit the top 
the same as the bottom. These pieces had 
best be put on with screws, so they will fit 
tightly. In Fig. 2 is shown their dimen- 
sions. These pieces must be placed so as 




to leave a margin of % in. on the sides and 
no margin on the ends, as per Fig. 1. When 
this is done we have a frame which has 
neither sides nor ends excepting the four 
uprights. 

We can now wind our coils for the heater. 
Cut 28 pieces 16 ft. long from a coil of 
broom wire; this wire is used in broom 
factories, and it is also used by tin- 
ners. It can be bought for 8 or 10 cents a 
pound, and 2% lbs. will be enough. The 
gauge is No. 19 B and S. 

Wind each one of these 16-ft. wires upon 
a i/^-in. iron rod; be sure and wind it close 
and tight, so that when you take it off the 
rod it will present a closed spring. 

After they are all wound (14 to each set), 
they must be joined together, as in Fig. 3. 
Fourteen of these coils must be made as if 
they were one coil, as per sketch, and 14 



to make the other coil. We will then have 
two coils in the heater, and either or both 
of them can be turned on or off at once. 

These coils must now be put in the frame 
so that they will not touch any of the coils 
in either set. They can be fastened to the 
top and bottom boards with double-pointed 
tacks. Care should be taken about driving 





<- -- 


--/a 


> 


5" 


1 




Fig. 2 




















1 



4 



<$>" 
^ 



■Pa'- 



-_1 



the tacks in far enough, because if they are 
not they will break loose and make the 
sides of the coil springs touch each other. 
The free ends of each set of coils will be 
used for connecting up to the circuit, so that 
they will not be cut off. 

Cut two pieces of sheet iron 15% in. long, 
9% in. wide; also two pieces 5% in. long by 
9% in. wide for the ends. These pieces 
should be perforated with a %-in. punch. 
The maker can select some pretty design, 
so that the punchings will not look rough 
when done. 

Fig. 4 is a home-made fuse block, % In. 
X 2% in. X 6 in. Binding posts, 1 and 1', 
are 1 in. high and are larger than the other 
ones. The current comes in at 1 and 1' and 
passes by wires to 2 and 2', thence by fuse 
wire to 4 and 4', and then by wire to 3 and 




3'. The only binding posts that we will use 
for the stove will be 4 and 4', 3 and 3', 
and for the current intake 1 and 1'. 

This block is made of poplar or any other 
kind of lumber, as it is thoroughly protected 
by the mica. It can be placed about 1^4 in. 
from one end of the heater and fastened 
there. After being fastened bore four small 
holes exactly beneath posts 4 and 4' and 3 



KM 



ENC Y(!LOP KDI A 



and 3' and then make connections, as in 
Fig. 5. 

The switches can be placed on the top of 
the heatei', opposite the fuse block, and in 



HOW TO BUILD A CONCRETE-MIXER. 




6 ^ 

the middle can be fastened a convenient 
handle. The top view will be like Fig. 6 
when completed. 

Before the sheet-iron piece's are put in, 
the four standards should have some small 
strips put in between them at both top and 
bottom, so that the strips will not fall 
through, and also 16 holes should be bored 
in tlie bottom board in the center with a 
%-in. bit. The bottom boards should have 
a small leg, diameter, % in. x 1 in. long, 

6 Q 

<i>AAAAAAAAAAAAA/ 




so the cold air can circulate to the heating 
apartment. Then place the sheet-iron strips 
in and fasten them with little strips. 

The coils ai*e made for 104 volts, but if 
the wood gets too hot, paint it with fire- 
proof paint and it will be all right for 110 
volts. Tlie cost of such a machine should 
not exceed 75 cents. 





\ 1 


1 


<\ 




- 


X i 
14 


■ / 




Fig t> 




(/ 




/ \ 






/ \ 







The sheet-iron pieces should be made 
with as many holes in them as possible. 
♦-«-* 

When through using a square wipe all 
perspiration marks from it, and occasionally 
put on a few drops of oil. Never use emery 
or sandpaper on nickel or black finished 
squares. 



To build the concrete-mixer shown in the 
illustration line a cubical wooden box with 
No. 10 sheet steel and arrange an iron man- 
hole at one corner. Mount the box on two 
corners or trunnions, one of which is a piece 
of 3-inch pipe, through which water is in- 
troduced and the other of which is connect- 
ed to a hand-crank by means of a gear-wheel 
and pinion. 

Turn the manhole up to receive the charge 
from the hopper and then fasten it down. 
Revolve tlie box a few times to dry mix the 
ingredients, then introduce the proper quan- 
tity of water by hose and nozzle through 
the hollow trunnion, and revolve the box as 
long as necessary. 




Home-Made Concrete Mixer 

To discharge the contents into a wheel- 
barrow to be transported to the work, re- 
move the manhole and rotate the box part 
way. Do not have the mixer placed so far 
away that a long trip on the wheelbarrow 
is necessitated, or the liquid will separate 
from the material and, if the wheelbarrow 
leaks, will run out and reworking the con- 
crete will be necessary. 

This apparatus was highly recommended 
by Henry W. Edwards of Grand Junction, 
Colo., in a paper read before the Atlantic 
City meeting of the American Institute of 
Mining Engineers. 

♦-•-♦ 

The following paste is good for keeping 
wood light: One-fourth pound beeswax 
scraped into one-half pint of turpentine. If 
it is wished to darken the wood add linseed 
oil. 



Electrifying a Big Bridge 



Superstructure 300 Feet I^ong Covers Manhattan Terminal 

VTHere TKere Are Five Cross-Overs and "WHere An 

Immense Number of Cars Are Switched. 



The electrifying of the new Williamsburg 
bridge connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn 
has recently been completed, and cars are 
now running over the structure. 

The overhead work is of unusually heavy 
special construction, and at the Manhattan 
end of the bridge consists of special steel 
lattice girders, supported on steel poles and 



switching so many cars at the terminals. 

Heavy mast-arms consisting of 2i/^-inch 
pipe, 18 feet long, are erected along both 
approaches to the bridge proper and extend 
over the double track. About 10,000 lineal 
feet of single troughing was used. 

For the positive feeders there were erected 
overhead eight miles of 782,000 circular mils 




TKe Ne-w Williamsburg Bridge Connecting Manhattan and BrooKlyn 



by attachment to the permanent bridge 
structure; is 300 feet long, and covers the 
five cross-overs at the terminal. Special 
hardwood oak troughing was used, having 
attached bar iron fittings on which the trol- 
ley wheel operates. The contact bar, Avhich 
is supported at frequent points by insulated 
hangers, is three-eighths inch by two and 
one-half inches. This construction is 
adapted to the lai-ge currents used for 



165 



stranded weatherproof aluminum cables, 
and along the track for negative returns, 
seven miles, making a total of 15 miles. On 
the Brooklyn approach near the bridge 
tower a special steel frame switch house 
covered with corrugated iron has been 
built. From this point the overhead and 
track return feeders are extended. On the 
Brooklyn plaza, heavy steel poles support 
the overhead work. 



166 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Motor Fire S^ngines Popular in England 



Motor five engines are rapidly replacing 
the old horse-drawn machines wherever 
practicable in England. So far, in America 
motor cars are only used in this department 
for hauling chiefs and fire marshals to the 
scene of the fire, but in England the whole 
equipment is gradually being readapted to 
the new means of propulsion. 

Gasoline motors are well adapted to the 



expanding into the inside of drums on the 
sprockets of the wheels, operated by the 
pedal lever and band brakes on drums of 
the wheel sprockets, operated by the side 
brake lever. 

The car is controlled by a throttle valve 
regulating the supply of gas to the motor, 
operated by a lever on the steering pillar 
and an auxiliary throttle on the brake pedaJ 




£>\^lisH Fiiremei% R-ide iz^ State 



fori of chemical fire engines shown in our 
Illustration. The apparatus is mounted on 
heavy wheels, the rear ones having addi- 
tional wire spokes and being shod with 
3-inch solid buffer tires while the front ones 
are fitted with 3 ^/^ -inch tires of another 
make. Exceptionally heavy springs are used. 
The 24-horsepower engine is of the 4 -cyl- 
inder horizontal pattern in ordinary prac- 
tice. The speed gear is of dimensions which 
give strength for the heaviest work, the 
high speed gear being 25 miles an hour. Any 
steam generated by continued running on 
low gear passes through brass grids provid- 
ed on the top of the watertank which is 
located between a double dash board. Be- 
neath the driver's seat is placed the gasoline 
tank. There are two sets of powerful brakes 
fitted to the machine, cast-iron shoes, 



The car weighs a ton and will carry 2,500 
pounds of fire appratus. A step at the back 
accommodates a fireman and two chemical 
cylinders; brackets are arranged for carry- 
ing two 9-foot ladders and the mechanism 
of the whole apparatus is protected from 
dirt by a shield slung underneath the car. 

— '■ *~»~¥ 

FIRE HOSE FOR INDOOR USE. 

Every large building (business house or 
dwelling) should have a reliable hose hung 
conveniently in reach for use in case of fire. 
Unlined linen hose is best for this purpose. 
This hose will leak Avhen the water is first 
turned on, but will soon swell and stop the 
leaks. It should be tested out of doors 
every six months and thoroughly dried be- 
fore replacing. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



167 



A JAPANESE MILITARY AIRSHIP IN USE. 



Tlie Japanese have made efficient and suc- 
cessful use of war balloons. The war bal- 
loons belonging to the 3rd Division of Gen- 
eral Nogi's army were of great assistance in 




Japanese Military Warship 

reconnoitering the approaches to Port Arthur, 
the observer in the balloon having communi- 
cation with the ground by telephone and 
from his high station directing the artillery 
fire. 



TRANSMITTING .CRUDE OIL BY PIPE 
LINES. 



Transmission of low gravity crude oil by 
pipe lines from the oil fields to the power 
market, so successfully effected in the east 
has not achieved the same result in the West. 
In Fresno county, California, a 6-inch pipe, 
110 miles long is being laid for transmitting 
crude oil from the Coalinga oil fields to tide- 
water and thence by tank ships to San Fran- 
cisco and other coast markets. 

Such a pipe laid from Bakersfield, Cal., to 
Point Pachmond, Cal., for conveying Kern 
county oil was at first supplied with eight 
pumping stations of 160-horsepower capac- 
ity. The oil pumped was delivered to the 
pipe line at from 500 to 600 pounds pressure 
per square inch in summer and up to 1,000 
pounds pressure in the winter time. By this 
arrangement it was not possible to get the 



oil to Point Richmond in commercial quan- 
tities. Then seven more pumping stations 
were added and yet unsatisfactory results. 
It is now reported that fifteen more pump- 
ing stations are to be added, a station for 
each 10 miles. The venture was practically 
a failure. 



MACHINE TO LEVEL "HUMPS" IN TRACK. 



Frequently during winter the snow and 
ice collects between the rails of street car 
tracks forming "humps." Sometimes the ice 




Ice Planer for StreetllVork 

ridges extend along the street between 
double tracks. To reduce these hard frozen 
masses of ice to the street level an eastern 
railway uses a row of cutting teeth fixed at 
intervals of 1% inches to an iron bar which 
is carried in front of the snow plows. The 
Street Railway Journal says the device is a 
success. The teeth are 6 by % inches each. 
For other portions of the street not reached 
by the snow plow the row of teeth are car- 




Knives Attached to Sno-w Ploiv 

ried on a pair of runners and drawn by four 
horses. After being loosened the ice is shov- 
eled up and carted away, or spread out even- 
ly over the pavement. 



In the naval battle of May, 1905, the Rus- 
sians wasted their poAvder and eventually 
ran short. 



168 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



FURLING SAILS BY MACHINERY. 



Jack Tar may no longer have to risk his 
life at dizzy heights, amid freezing blasts 
or lightning's play, while he tries to reef 
the upper sails. A retired sea captain, Wil- 
liam Williams^ has invented a system by 
which the sails can be raised or reefed from 
the deck, without the use of steam power. 
The plan of working the sails is on the prin- 
ciple of a roller curtain, except that steel 
ropes worked by hand winches on the deck 
take the place of curtain springs. The sys- 
tem is applicable only to square-rigged 
vessels. 

Practically, Williams' device consists of a 
set of winches placed at the foot of each 
mast, whereby a single man by turning a 
crank can furl, unfurl or reef a sheet in one 
minute. To complete any three of these 
operations on the main yard, lower topsail 
yard, upper topsail yard, and lower and 
upper topsail yards, would require an able- 




THe Hoisting Gear 

bodied seaman but five minutes at the five 
winches. 

These winches are so arranged as to take 
up their own slack by reversing cogs. The 
sails themselves work on sleeves that en- 
circle the yards— the operation not being 
dissimilar to that of the common roller 



window curtain. By merely slipping a brake 
the sheets can be allowed to unfurl them- 
selves by a system of counterbalancing 
weights. The gearing of the winches gives 
great leverage, for a pressure of 55 pounds 
on the crank can hoist 2,000 pounds up 
among the rigging. The yards can be 
braced, eased away, or hauled around be- 
fore the wind by one seaman working a few 
minutes at a crank. The sails can be held 
to at any desired angle to the wind. 

The system of winches before the mast 
corresponds to the present complicated 
tangle of halyards, and, besides saving more 
than half the labor, is invaluable in cases 
where the wind takes the vessel hard aback. 
It is almost impossible to furl sails by the 
old system under these conditions. The 
number of sailors can be reduced one-half. 
If the system fulfills the expectations of 
several large shipping interests in San 
Francisco, it is destined to revolutionize the 
life of seamen before the mast. 



LENGTHENING THE LIFE OF TELEGRAPH 
AND TELEPHONE POLES. 



A few years longer life for telegraph and 
telephone poles would mean an enormous 
save in American forests. With the in- 
creasing network of wires reaching out in 
every direction uniting the country like so 
many live nerves, the demands on our for- 
ests are something tremendous, and in a 
few more years must mean serious deple- 
tion of large trees. Two large corporations 
have united with this government to experi- 
ment with preservatives for poles. The life 
of the pole depends on a very small por- 
tion of its length, namely, in a standing 
pole, the section extending six or eight 
inches above and below the ground. This 
is called the breaking point, and in order 
to have a large margin against decay at 
this point much larger poles are used than 
are actually necessary to bear the strain 
imposed upon them. 

The strain upon a pole is felt at the 
ground line. Decay also begins at the 
ground line, but does not extend far below 
because the supply of oxygen and heat de- 
creases, nor far above because the moisture 
is not sufficient. Thus the only serious con- 
sideration is to find some antiseptic to pro- 
tect this all-important section from fungus. 
In the experiments to be tried dead oil of 
coal tar will be forced through the butt 
of the pole and the creosote method will 
be used, but only for a distance of eight 
feet. 

The usual treatment of poles in this coun- 
try requires the use of an air-tight cylinder. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



169 



ICE-YACHTING-THRILLING SPORT ON 
NORTHERN LAKES. 



Ice-yachting, both in this country and in 
Canada, has increased in popularity with the 
present season. In fact, some of the yachts 
have reached such proportions, with a corre- 
sponding increase in sail area that their 
speed has at times become a menace and 
several serious collisions have occurred. 

The hull portion of most of these yachts is 
very simple, consisting only of a center tim- 
ber, running fore and aft, and the runner 
plank. The mast is stepped on the center- 
piece, the forward part constitutes the bow- 
sprit and the aft part carries the box and 
rudder part. The runners are attached to 
the runner plank which is a stout timber 
from 14 feet to 28 feet in length and taper- 
ing in thickness towards the ends. 

The largest of these yachts weigh 3,000 
pounds and have 1,000 square feet of sail 
area. Record time so far in the numerous 
races is a mile in two minutes and twenty- 
eight seconds. 

^ » » 

AUTO MAIL WAGONS IN PARIS. 



ferring the mails between the main office, 
substations and railway depots. The cars 
have a speed of 25 miles an hour and weigh 
2% tons of which the storage batteries com- 
prise 1,320 pounds. The Electrical Review 




The postal service in Paris has received 
fifteen new electric motor vans for trans- 



£lectric Mail VTa^on 

says: "The batteries are charged daily be- 
tween 12 and 2 p. m. and for this pui-pose a 
model charging station has been installed in 
the central postoffice building." The use of 
motor wagons for mail service is becoming 
general in Europe. 




'Tbe I^ar^est of these Yachts "Weigh S.OOO Pounds.' 



170 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




TRAVELING HOTELS FOR TELEPHONE 
CONSTRUCTION CREWS. 



A northern telephone company in con- 
structing lines through North Dakota and 
Minnesota met with some difficulty in secur- 
ing board and lodging for its crews of work- 
men. Often the country is sparsely settled 
and the distance between lodgings and 
working points great. 

To meet these conditions the construction 
wagons shown in our illustration were built. 
The wagons accommodate 16 men, one be- 
ing used for a dining room and kitchen, the 
other as sleeping quarters. They are each 
8 feet wide, 26 feet long and 7 feet high 
and mounted on low trucks with wide tires, 
giving a large bearing surface to the road- 
way so that the power required to draw 
them over soft tracks is reduced to a mini- 
mum. 

The kitclien is 8 by 8 feet and located in 
the front end of the dining car, the rest of 
the space is used as a dining room. 

In the sleeping v/agon there are eight 
berths on each side arranged in tiers. On 
soft roads two teams are necessary for 
drawing each wagon, but over good roads 
only one team each is used. The wagons 
have proven a great convenience as the men 
are always on the ground for the work. 
Tents were formerly tried, but the wagons 
were an improvement. 

Some large telephone companies are now 
using automobiles for repair work along 
lines, some have supplied motorcycles for 
this purpose and yet others have a good 
horse always in readiness. We are indebted 
to General-Superintendent L. D. Richardson 
for our illustration. 

<» » » 

STEAM TURBINES CONTINUOUS RUN 
OF 3,962 HOURS. 



One of the most remarkable runs ever 
made by a steam engine was completed 
when the 600-horsepower steam turbine in 
Machinery building was shut down on De- 
cember 2, its work having been completed. 
This record of 3,962 hours continuous service 
breaks all steam turbine records. Piston 
engines have run for longer periods, but 
never under high speed; the turbine main- 
tained a speed of 3,600 revolutions per min- 
ute, or 855,792,000 revolutions during the 
term. The work was to supply light and 
current for the exhibit of the electrical con- 
cern which built it, and the load varied 50 
per cent. An examination of the turbine is 
said to have shown it in perfect condition 
after its long run, the tool marks on the 
bearings still showing plainly. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



171 



Living Trees for Wireless Tele^rapK Stations 



startling Discovery of Major Squier, XJ. S. A..*«Alread3r Successful on 
SHort Distances'-Great Possibilities. 



Major George 0. Sqiiier of the Signal 
Corps, United States Army, has succeeded 
in sending and receiving wireless telegraph 
messages, using living eucalyptus trees in 
place of masts and towers. The branches 
and leaves served in place of the usual net- 
work of wires as antennae. 

Messages have already been transmitted 
by the new method between Ft. Mason and 
Yerba Buenna, a distance of three and three- 
quarters miles in a straight line. 

It is certainly significant 
that Nature having pro- 
vided unseen lines of com- 
miTuication in the ether 
should be found ready to 
still further supplement 
her bounty and furnish iu 
leaf and branch and trunk 
those media which man 
has been erecting at great 
pains and expense. 

The thought at once sug- 
gests the possibility of an 
hitherto undreamed o f 
ease and multiplication of 
exchange of words be- 
tween the dwellers in the 
rural districts, if every 
shade tree in the farmer's 
dooryard may become a 
speaking tube to friends 
and neighbors for miles 
around. 

Major Squier has found 
that a good live tree 
is the best sending station 
for wireless. Also that a 
good live tree is the best 
receiving station. It requires only fifteen 
minutes for him to attach the necessary 
sending apparatus to the first ti'ee. The 
mechanism that is affixed to the second, 
the 'receiving tree, can be so affixed in less 
time. It is so simple that it can be carried 
in a hand satchel. 

The perfection of the service rests upon 
the power of the instrument that emits the 
messages into the air and upon the delicacy 
of the detector that receives them. 

Major Squier believes that trees will come 
into general use as wireless telegraph sta- 
tions. In war times their utility would be 
of vast benefit to the army, the signal corps 
of which employed them. 

In times of peace their value in furnishing 




Maj. Geo. O. Squier, \J. S. A. 



facilities for telegraphing without wires 
and without the great expense attendant 
upon the apparatus now in use would com- 
mend them for some commercial purposes. 
Major Squier is so convinced of the possi- 
bilities of the method that he has conducted 
elaborate experiments with the trees. He 
decided, as Fleming and other investigators 
had decided before him, that the general 
function of the vertical receiving wire used 
in wireless telegraphy is to unite electrically 
the earth and space, by 
which union a suflBcient 
amount of the energy of 
the radiating waves is lo- 
calized to operate a suit- 
able receiving device. 

It occurred to him that 
although it is sometimes 
impossible, and always 
troublesome and more or 
less expensive to get the 
proper wire, there are 
many available trees. He 
knew that much better re- 
sults are obtained with 
the field telephone iu 
wooded territory when 
the receiving wire is 
grounded by attaching it 
to an iron nail driven into 
a tree than when a con- 
ducting plate is buried. 

It is possible to make a 
tree a telephone conductor 
even when this nail is 
driven into it thirty feet 
above the ground instead 
of a few inches, as is 
usually done. 

Deciding that the tree, so useful in mili- 
tary telephony, was also of benefit in wire- 
less telegraphj^ Squier affixed a receiving 
instrument to one of General MacArthur's 
pet trees. This instrument he made by 
filling a small ebonite tube with the regular 
sized spherical carbon granules used in tele- 
phone transmitters. 

He imbedded in them two steel needles as 
electrodes. These needles were close to- 
gether at the central part of the tube. A 
head telephone was used to convey to the 
ear of the receiving operator the messages 
conveyed through the steel needles. 

Yet, while the experiment showed that 
the electro-magnetic effects obtained were 



17- 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



sufficient to get signals, it was also shown 
that the tree had absorbed more electro- 
magnetism than the instrument used. With 
the improved wave detector operated by 
electrical energy, which instrument Major 
Squier wants to get, the efficiency of the 
system of telegraphing with trees will be 
much improved. 

Willow, pine, spruce and oak all make 
good receiving stations. They are useful 
for sending also. The power required for 
sending is secured from two small portable 
batteries of ten volts, each of which excites 
a large coil. 

The "grounding" essential to sending is 
secured through the roots of the tree. A 
wire is attached to a nail driven into the 
root. The trunk of the tree supports the 
sending apparatus. The only electrical con- 
nection between the two is at the root of 
the tree. 

Major Squier says: 

"I have simply scratched the surface of 
this absorbingly interesting topic. I have 
experimented for only three months. Ex- 
cellent results have been secured, and 
with better apparatus and more work I 
think we shall see that the possibilities of 
the subject are almost boundless. 

"Naturally I am most interested in the 
military side. I want the United States 
army to get what benefit there is to be 
secured from my experiments. That is why 
I have applied for patents upon the system 
of using trees as stations for the wireless 
telegraph. One of my applications has been 
favorably acted upon. I have hope that the 
others will be. I have no idea of going into 
business, and I want the patents as much 
for the government's protection as for any 
other reason. 

"The use to the army of trees as wireless 
stations is great. When a balloon is used to 
assist the wireless the enemy sees the bal- 
loon. Signal flags have been discarded be- 
cause they revealed the signalers' where- 
abouts to the enemy. But a tree gives no 
sign that it is being employed as a signal 
station. 

"Commercially the system has great possi- 
bilities. 

"We have successfully telegraphed with 
trees as stations at every distance we have 
attempted. We have proved that the prin- 
ciple is workable. Now all that remains to 
be done is to get the best wave detectors 
and stronger power. The extension of the 
distances over which tree telegraphy is 
practical is only a matter of power. 

"I see no reason that in the near future 
farmers, whose places are fortunately 
usually well provided with trees, cannot be 



able to communicate wirelessly for many- 
miles. 

"Anybody can see the importance of thus 
being able to get crop reports, weather bul- 
letins and items of particular or general in- 
formation. 

"The cost of the instruments will be 
slight. Any system of wireless telegraphy 
can be used in connection with the trees. 
The limits of the disiiovery are so broad 
that no one company can corner the idea. 

"But it is not only in space telegraphy 
that the trees are susceptible of great use- 
fulness. My experiments have shown to me 
that the weather bureau and the department 
of forestry can get good results from a close 
study of the trees. 

"The trees are not only helpful in that 
they conduct electricity to the earth, but 
they are good weather registers. Their field 
of usefulness in these directions has not as 
yet been thoroughly explored. 

"In time we shall learn just what trees 
to plant about our homes that we may be 
safe from lightning. We shall also learn 
much of the weather of the future from the 
trees." 
Extracts from Maj. Sauier's Report. 

The difficulty of transmitting electro- 
magnetic waves over land as compared to 
that over seawater, has been well estab- 
lished, and this difficvilty is attributed in a 
large measure to the general absorption of 
intervening I '-is, vegetation, buildings and 
conductors through which the wave trains 
must pass in reaching the receiving appa- 
ratus. 

However closely we may approximate in 
theory to the actual mechanism of electro- 
magnetic wave transmission, as used in 
wireless telegraph practice at present, it is 
now reasonably certain that both the earth 
itself and the space above the earth are 
essentially involved in the phenomena. 

Repeated experiment has shown the im- 
portance of good earth connections for both 
the transmitting and receiving antennae, 
and several letters patent, such as those of 
Lodge, Muirhead, Fessenden and Stone, pro- 
vide, in addition, for special conducting 
metallic nets or strips^ at the foot of the 
antennae, extending therefrom to a distance 
of a quarter wave length or more, whereby 
the efficiency is increased. 

The influence of the general condition of 
the earth around the foot of the antennae 
as to moisture, temperature and ingredients, 
has also been noted, and the effects of the 
capacity of the aerial itself, its height, and . 
of elevated capacity areas placed at or near 
the end of the vertical wire, have been in- 
vestigated in connection with the recent 



E N C Y (J li C) P 1-; 1) I A 



173 



great advance in syntonized systems. 

For best results, it bas been observed in 
general tbat tbe vertical wire or net should 
be carefully insulated from all supporting 
poles, guys, or indeed any electrical con- 
ductor connected to the earth, the object 
being to form an open vertical receiving 
circuit, insulated in the air. 

We may therefore, with advantage, as 
Fleming and others have done, regard the 
general function of the vertical receiving 
wire and its accessories as serving to unite 



vegetation, particularly in the form of high 
trees covered with green leaves. 

My attention was first attracted by learn- 
ing from Major General Arthur MacArthur, 
U. S. Army, of a successful experiment 
made in July, 1904, at the military maneu- 
vers of the Department of the Columbia, at 
American Lake, Washington, by Lieutenant 
William M. Goodale, of the U. S. Signal 
Corps, in which he found that in laying 
rapid telephone lines in a wooded country, 
for the field exercises of the Army, a much 




'Wireless Tele^rapH Tree Station at; Ft. Mason 



electrically the eai*th and space effects 
above mentioned, by which, through the 
agency of one of the forms of wave detect- 
ors, a sufficient amount of the energy of 
the radiating waves is localized to operate 
a suitable receiving device. 

It was from a general survey of the 
above established facts regarding the re- 
ceiving conditions for successful wireless 
transmission of intelligence, that the writer 
was led recently to consider how far these 
conditions may be fulfilled by growing 



better ground could be obtained by attach- 
ing the earth side of the instrument to an 
iiron nail driven into the trunk of a tree 
or shrub, than by the ordinary and more la- 
borious method of burying a conducting 
plate, or by driving an iron spike into the 
earth itself. 

It is found that the conductivity of a 
growing tree in a healthy state, for tele- 
phonic currents, is such that the earth con- 
tact nail need not be at the root of the 
tree, but may be carried to a height up the 



174 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




A.rmy Automobile Used in Tree Experiments 



tree of 30 feet or more, and the telephone 
used from that elevation with satisfactory 
results. Indeed, experiment shows that 
good communication can be maintained 
from one tree top to another with the trunks 
of both trees in the circuit. When the ope- 
rator holds the ground wire in the hand, 
and completes the circuit to earth by mere- 
ly touching a live twig or leaf, the trans- 
mission of speech is good. This permits 
the military scout to use the vantage point 
of the tree elevation for observing the 
enemy, while being screened from view by 
its foliage, and at the same time to trans- 
mit by telephone to the distant station the 
information thus obtained. 

In order to test other kinds of trees than 
those available at Fort Mason, California, 
a telegraph auto-car, recently purchased for 
the Signal Corps of the Army, was tempo- 
rarily fitted with the necessary transmit- 
ting apparatus, and a tour made through 
Santa Clara and Alameda counties, Califor- 
nia, installing and operating field sending 
and receiving stations at various points 
along the route. 

The electric power required was in the 
form of two. small portable storage batteries 
of ten volts each, which were used to ex- 
cite a large Apps coil. 



When a tree was used to support the 
sending aerial, the "earthing" was accom- 
plished through the root system of the tree 
itself, by attaching a wire to one or more 
iron nails driven into its base. The tree 
stem was utilized to support the aerial, the 
only electrical connection therewith being 
at its base. 

After a little practice two men, a ser- 
geant and corporal of the Signal Corps, one 
a good lineman, and the other the chauffeur 
of the machine, who also acted as telegraph 
operator, could install a sending station in 
ten to fifteen minutes. A receiving station 
is even less trouble to install, since there 
is nothing to transport except what can be 
carried in the hands. 

The experiments thus far have been main- 
ly qualitative, and the apparatus used, of 
marked simplicity. 

The transmitting apparatus at Fort Ma- 
son consists of a small Apps induction 
coil of about 4-in. spark, and a vertical 
antenna wire suspended from a 75-ft. pole 
situated on a bluff about 80 ft. above the 
sea level. This was one of the first wire- 
less stations installed in the United States. 

The detector used consists of a simple 
microphone made by partially filling a small 
ebonite tube with the regular sized spherical 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



carbon grannies used in telephone trans- 
mitters, and by imbedding tlierein two steel 
needles as electrodes, so that they nearly 
touch each other at the central part of the 
tube. 

In Fig. 1 are shown three typical ar- 
rajigements of receiving circuits, which 
have been found efficient in practice. In 
this figure, a growing tree is represented 
by the double line. 

In Fig. 1 (a), N represents a point of 
electric contact with the tree, made in any 
convenient manner, such as by driving au 
ordinary iron nail or pin into the tree, pref- 
erably through the outer, living part there- 
of. 

The point G represents a conducting con- 
tact with the earth, made by driving a 
metallic pin therein. M is a microphone; 
T, a telephone; and B, a source of electro- 



was shifted up and down the tree, the 
effects being noted. In this experiment, 
the transmitting station remained unaltered 
as far as possible, sending a simple signal, 
such as the letter S. It was found that 
as soon as the distance PN became more 
than three or four feet, faint signals were 
heard, which in general increased in loud- 
ness with the distance between P and N, 
along the trunk or stem of the tree, up to 
the general region where the first branches 
began to diverge, beyond which a further 
increase could not be certainly noted. 

In order to insure that the effects ob- 
served were actually due to electromagnetic 
waves from the tree itself, and not to the 
short antenna wire represented by MN, in 
(a) and (b). Fig. 1, a careful exploration 
of the tree was made, using lead-covered 
insulated wire for the connections PM and 



(AJ 



(B) 



(€) 




^^ 




EARTH LINE 



motive force. In Fig. 1 (b) and (c), the 
corresponding letters represent similar ap- 
paratus. 

The first experiments tried were with an 
arrangement of circuits indicated in Fig. 
1 (b). 

The electrical contact with the tree at 
the point P, was made by driving a nail 
into the tree itself an inch or two above 
the earth line, so that the contact would be 
distinctly with the tree, and not with the 
earth. The whole apparatus used for these 
preliminary experiments was extremely sim- 
ple, consisting of a few feet of flexible 
lamp cord, a microphone, with three small 
dry cells, and a head telephone receiver, 
suitably mounted on a small board about 
10x12 inches. 

With the electrical contact at the point 
P remaining stationary, the upper point N 



MN, the lead covering of this short antenna 
being carefully grounded, so that the actual 
wire used was incased throughout in an 
earth connected metallic conductor, which 
would effectually screen the electromagnetic 
waves from affecting the wire inside. With 
such a wire, with the point P remaining 
stationary, experiments were made, show- 
ing that as soon as the distance PN became 
more than about three feet for the particu- 
lar distance and apparatus used, faint sig- 
nals began to be heard. Upon removing 
the terminal an inch or two away from the 
tree, still keeping it at the same height 
above the earth, the signals disappeared en- 
tirely, returning again when electrical con- 
tact was restored. These effects increased 
in general, as the distance PN became 
greater. 



176 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Forty Minutes From CHicago to Mil^'atikee 



Mail and Express to be Htiried Tl&rou^K a Pneumatic Tube at T20 Miles 

an Hour 



From Chicago to Milwaukee in a straight 
line is 841/2 miles. The fastest trains con- 
sume two hours in making the trip. It is 
now proposed to transmit mail and express 
matter between the two cities in 40 minutes. 
A pneumatic tube, 18 inches in diameter. 




Vacuum Pumi> 

conveying loads up to 500 pounds, is to be 
constructed; should it prove successful one 
more means of rapid communication will be 
available, and other large cities connected. 



distant day. There are now in operation in 
the United States more than 300 tube plants 
accommodating 6,000 stations, requiring 3,600 
horsepower, and operating at a cost of $36,- 
000 per day. The longest of these is the 
plant serving the Chicago postoffice. This 
system is nine miles long, double tubed ail 
the way. It connects various railway and 
postal stations of Chicago with the old post- 
ofl&ce building and has a capacity for carry- 
ing 3,000 letters per minute each way. Its 
cost was $650,000. 

Until very recently, however, the practica- 
bility of tube systems connecting cities hun- 
dreds of miles apart was precluded by the 
enormous amount of power which would be 
required to operate such a system. It is now 
claimed that a new system has done away 
with this objection and that a line connect- 
ing Chicago and Milwaukee capable of carry- 
ing packages up to 500 pounds in weight is 
an assured enterprise. 

The distance between Chicago and Mil- 
waukee is 84.5 miles and the proposed sys- 
tem is to include pipes 18 inches in diameter 
for carriers conveying up to 500 pounds 
weight and a series of 3-inch tubes for spe- 
cial express messages and very small pack- 
ages. From the main terminal at either city, 
connections with all the big factories, and 
other business houses could be installed and 
thus the service be made to include a large 
territory. The installation cost of such a 
plant would be $5,000,000, but it is a feature 




•TEOMINAL DEVICE" " f ■ - BELAY DEVICE - 

Plan Section of R.elay System 



As yet no long-distance pneumatic tube 
systems are in operation but contracts for 
several are now pending and the work of in- 
stalling them will be taken up at no very 



of the system that the cost of operation and 
maintenance is so low that the company 
could make extraordinarily low rates, 500 
pounds being carried for 15 cents. This is 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



177 



an astonishing fact when it is considered 
that the package would cover the distance 
iu just 40 minutes. 

The two important features of the plan 
are, (1) the fact that instead of the carrier 
being forced througli the tubes by means of 
high pressure behind it, as in most systems, 
the air is partly exhausted in front of the 
carrier, and the carrier glides along sucked 
by the vacuum and seeking to demonstrate 
the old law expounded by Newton— '"Nature 
abhors a vacuum"; (2) the system of relays 
dividing long pipe lines into sections of from 
two to three miles each, and each section 
operating "o-holly independent of the others. 
Automatically with the entrance of the car- 
rier into a section power is cut off from the 
preceding section the instant the carrier 
leaves it. In this way the power required 



has been theoretieally reduced to a mini- 
mum; and it remains for the constructed 
line to demonstrate the power required in 
actual practice. 

The carriers do not travel on wheels or 
rollers, but are covered with block felt which 
is as liard as rock, and fastened with brass 
caps and screws. It is expected the felt will 
last several months. The carrier is very 
necessary to the safe conveyance of the con- 
tents. A few weeks ago by chance a leather 
pencil filled with mail fell into the tube at 
the Chicago postoflBce and when the poucli 
arrived at the other end of the tube it was 
torn and riddled. This illustrates the tre- 
mendous power exerted by the air pressure. 

Pipe lines are intended to be placed under- 
ground where storms and other disturbing 
accidents cannot affect the service. 



All tHe Parts of a Buggy 













PfOfi NUT 

COOSf ivfCM 



^'■" "■•HDLt 






178 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



RURAL FREE DELIVERY. 



Rural Free Delivery which corresponds to 
the free delivery system so long in force 
in cities, is now in operation in every state. 
Thirty thousand rural letter carriers make 
daily trips of from 20 to 30 miles each, serv- 




ing from 100 to 150 farmers' families on 
each route. These carriers are required to 
furnish at their own expense, the "outfits" 
consisting of mail wagon, harness, horses, 
etc. Many are obliged to keep four or five 
horses on account of bad roads or hills. They 
are paid from $600 to $720 a year, according 
to length of route, but have to spend one- 
half their salary for horse feed and other 
running expenses. The mail Avagons, which 
are miniature postoffices on wheels, cost 
from $60 to $75, besides the freight. These 
carriers perform nearly all the functions of 
a postmaster, selling stamps, registering let- 
ters and securing and cashing money orders. 
A farmer may thus in addition to receiving 
his mail every day in the year, except Sun- 
days, send or cash money orders right at his 
front gate. Each "patron," as the farmers 
served are called, must provide a mail box, 
and place it on the fence, a post or tree In 
front of his residence. Thousands of pa- 
trons, however, are served who live long dis- 
tances from the route, and hence at cross 
roads what is called a "nest of boxes" is 
often seen. 

The nest shown in the illustration contains 
46 boxes, representing that many families 
some of whom live 10 miles away but who 
find it more convenient to get their mail in 
this way than to drive 15 or 20 miles to 
town. 

The boxes may be locked, but seldom are, 
and in thousands of cases no locks are ever 
used. As the theft of mail fr«m one of these 
boxes is severely punished by long terms 
in prison, such events are extremely rare. It 
is stated that there are now over 3,500,000 
farmers' families being served by the rural 
free delivery, or a total population of more 
than 18,000,000 persons. The system is 
doing more to make farm life attractive 
to the young people than anything which 
has ever been done. 

Several thousand additional carriers will 
be appointed during the present year, and 
the service is eventually expected to require 
50,000 carriers. These carriers must pass an 
examination and give bonds for $500. Each 
carrier has a substitute who carries the mail 
when the regular carrier is sick. 

The rural carriers have only one or two 
holidays during the entire year, and must 
go out in all kinds of weather. They are 
the poorest paid employes in the government 
service. 

The rural carrier has many thrilling ex- 
periences; at times he swims swollen rivers; 
rescues persons lost in snow storms; discov- 
ers and extinguishes fires where the family 
is away from home; and his arrival is the 
event of the day at the farm house. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



179 



BULLET-PROOF MILITARY MOTORS FOR 
RED CROSS SERVICE. 

A bullet-proof military motor having 
shields of the Paliser design of special qual- 
ity steel is an English invention which 



and lamps for affording electric light with- 
out glass, by means of the motor, to a field 
hospital tent are among the important de- 
vices in this line. In the lamp the carbons 
are placed low, and the radiance thus 
thrown upward to the large shade, whence 




Used as a SHield 

promises much toward reducing the terrors 
of warfare. The motors are designed for 
the use of officers and men in giving first 
aid to the wounded in the thick of a battle 
if necessary. 

The motors have three wheels, and the 




Ivamp for Operating at Ni^Ht 

bullet-proof shield may be extended wing 
fasliion for protection. They carry such 
restoratives, bandages and emergency sup- 
plies as may be required for immediate use. 
Mechanical appliances for army use are 
increasing. Portable ice-making machines 




Front Vie^iv of Motor 

it is reflected, and so affords a shadowless, 
diffused light for surgical work. 

♦ » » 

GAS TANK FOR AUTOS AND LAUNCHES. 



Acetylene is a popular light for automo- 
biles and launches, and it is now possible to 
purchase the acetylene gas in small portable 




tanks, and avoid the generation of the gas. 
The tanks can be attached at any most con- 
venient place about the machine or boat, and 
piped to burn as many lights as needed and 
where wanted. 

When the tank runs low it is exchanged 
for another fully charged, with a supply to 
last from two to three luonths. Supply 
depots are located in all the large cities. 



A SIMPLE TEMPERING RECIPE. 



Dissolve a small quantity of sal-ammoniac 
in water, make the metal red hot, dip it in 
the mixture and leave enough heat in metal 
to draw it back a bit. If left to cool in 
the liquid tools will show too hard. 



180 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



TIMING RACES AT THE FINEST TO- 
BOGGAN RUN IN THE WORLD. 

St. Moritz is a Switzerland village— one of 
tlie highest in the Engadine— having an alti- 
tude of 6,000 feet, and world-famous for its 
fine toboggan slide, the "Cresta." Here in 
March or April of each year gather tobog- 
ganing enthusiasts of many nationalties to 
compete in what might appropriately be 
called the "Derby" of this sport, though it 
is linown as the "Grand National." 

The toboggan course, with its high banlvs, 
forming sharp curves, and its steep gradient, 



START s 




X corT'o^^ }, 



TOBOCCAN track; 



FINISH V -""''"" 



cioseo CIRCUIT : 



Fig. 1. 

is much like other such courses, but is ex- 
ceptionally well located. As only one tobog- 
gan can occupy tbe track at a time and the 
races are all decided on a time basis, a very 
interesting and accurate electric apparatus 
is used for this purpose. Alongside the 
course are set poles carrying four overhead 
wires, the two upper ones of which connect 
to a telephone at each end of the course, 
putting officials at those points in communi- 
cation. At the starting point one overhead 
wire is connected through a battery of 10 
cells to one terminal of a chronograph (see 
Fig. 1), and the other terminal of the 
chronograph is connected through a trigger 
switch X to the other overhead wire. The 
further ends of the overhead lines are 



connected at the finishing points to another 
trigger switch Y. Both switches, X and Y, 
are firmly fixed at the side of the course, 



r-- 




Fig. 2. 

and have each a strong cotton line attached, 
with one end to the trigger of the switch; 
the line is stretched across the track about 
2% in. from the ground, and the other end 
is tied to a peg driven into the ground on 
the further side. The two switches are 
nearly identical. The Electrical Review, 
London, describes their mechanism as fol- 
lows: 

A circular wheel of brass, A, is mounted 
on bearings, and has a notch in its periphery 
in which the pawl, B, is placed when the 
trigger is set. To the wheel is fixed a radial 
arm, C, with heavy brass bob, which falls 
by gravity when the pawl is disengaged by 
the cotton being pulled. At the lower edge 
of the wheel. A, a piece of ebonite, D, is in- 
serted in slightly different positions in the 
two switches (Fig. 3); also a metallic spring 
contact, E, is pressed against the under side 
of the edge of A. 

As will be seen in Fig. 3, when the pawl 
is set in the notch in the two switches, the 
spring E in switch X will be pressing 
against the ebonite D and in switch Y, the 
spring E is making contact with the wheef 
A. Before the tobogganer starts, both 
switches are set w^th the pawls B in the 
notches of the wheel A and the cotton 
stretched from the trigger across the ti-ack 
at start and finishing points (Fig. 2). The 
signal is given and the tobogganer starts 
from a few yards behind the cotton; his 
toboggan striking the cotton, pulls and 
breaks it, disengaging the pawl; the arm. 




Fig. 3. 

C, drops at switch X, closing the circiiit^ 
which allows the current to flow through 
the electro-magnet of the chi-onograph, the 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



181 



armature releasing the clockwork, which 
immediately starts and continues until the 
cotton attached to switch Y is pulled and 
broken by the toboggan at the finish of the 
course, when the arm of switch Y falling 
breaks the circuit and stops the chrono- 
graph; the time is then noted, and the ap- 
paratus re-set for the next tobogganer. The 
chronograph has a stop for re-setting the 
hand at zero, one complete revolution of the 
hand representing 30 seconds and these be- 
ing sub-divided into tenths. 

The Cresta is something over three-quar- 
ters of a mile in length, with a difference 
in elevation of 600 feet. The record time 
made so far is 61 6-10 seconds, an average 
rate of 60 miles an hour on the fastest 
parts. 

♦ « » 

GASOLINE MOTOR CAR FOR ENGLISH 
RAILWAYS. 



The Great Xorthern Railway of England is 
experimenting witli a gasoline motor car, 
which, if successful will be used in subur- 
ban work. The Electrical Review, Loudon, 
says: 

The motive power is generated by two en- 
gines, which, however, are not connected in- 
dependently to the axles, although both axles 
are driven; under normal circumstances the 
engines drive on to a common longitudinal 
shaft, which is connected to the axles by 
beveled gearing. To overcome the difficulty 
of one axle over-running the other, owing to 
any possible inequality in the diameter of 
the wheels, a special form of differential 
gear is introduced, and combined with this 
special gear is the reversing mechanism. The 
engines are connected through independent 
clutches to a common change speed box, 
from which the power is transmitted, by 
means of the longitudinal driving shaft, to 
gear boxes suspended on each axle, and at 



this point the speed is reduced by means of 
single reduction gearing. 

The engines are of the standard Daimler 
type, each capable of developing 36 H. P. 




Gasoline Street Car 

when running at full speed. A separate 
petrol tank is provided for each engine, and 
the combined capacity of these is sufficient 
for 400 car-miles. 

The complete car weighs something under 
16 tons, including its full complement of 
passengers, and although the normal speed 
for which it is designed is 30 miles per hour, 
it has on several occasions attained a speed 
considerably over 50 miles. The car is light- 
ed by electricity obtained from storage bat- 
teries, which also supply energy for ignition 
purposes and for the magnetic clutches. 



IRISHMAN SANG HIS OWN REQUIEM. 



A merchant of Cork, who greatly admired 
his own magnificent barytone voice, sang 
his own funeral mass over liis remains not 
long ago. This seemingly impossible feat 
was accomplished by means of a phonograph 
record prepared by the man in view of his 
death. The phonograph was placed on the 
coffin and the voice of the dead sang the 
mass. The record will be used for each 
anniversary mass. 




TrucU and Running Gear of English Ga soline Street Car 



182 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



.SMALLEST RESTAURANT 
WORLD. 



IN THE 



HOW STEEPLE JACKS CLIMB TO DAN- 
GEROUS PLACES. 



What is claimed to be ttie smallest res- 
taurant in the world is in operation at 
Butte, Mont. It is never closed; when the 
place was opened the owners threw away 
the key and the door has never since been 
locked. It is between two large buildings 
and is only 3 feet wide and 13% feet long. 
Only four persons can be served at a time, 
and there is no standing room. 





tt 


vI^^^k' 


Wm 


^^^wl^f^^MJ 








^H 


^Fi'^j 


II 



"Only THree Feet Wide.»» 

About half of the 13 feet is taken up by 
the kitchen, which contains a small refrig- 
erator, a gas range, a coffee urn and a cof- 
plete cupboard. The equipment is perfect 
in every respect, though in miniature. 

Every inch of available space is utilized. 
The one table is 18 inches wide and 3% 
feet long. There are four stationary chairs, 
which are in constant use. 

The owners of this world's smallest res- 
taurant are two chefs who run two 12-hour 
shifts. The two men do all the work. A 
great many visit the restaurant just out of 
mere curiosity. 



Several railway systems are considering 
the installation of a wireless telegraph sys- 
tem for communication between moving 
trains and stations located at large cities. 



A steeple jack tells how he succeeds in 
climbing to apparently' inaccessible places, 
and smiled as he remarked "It's easy — when 
you know how and have the nerve." All the 
same most people would rather look on from 
a safe distance than do the climbing. He 
says: 

"I know of no reason why a painter of 
ordinary nerve and a clear head cannot 
climb a pole a mile high if he desires to, 
and the pole is that high. Very often we 
see a weather vane perched on tlie top of 
a rod anywhere from six to sixteen feet in 
length above a church spire. It is necessary 
to take the vane down in order to regild it. 

"My way of doing it is this: Take an 
ordinary bos'n's chair, with a tail of suffi- 
cient length. Pass the tail around the spar 
or rod twice underneath its own part, then 
once around above, tucking the end under 
its own part, making what sailors call a roll- 
ing hitch. Place yourself in the cliair, take 
in all the slack you can get, raising your- 
self as high as possible, jamming your hitch 
tight. Now take a strap of sufficient length 
(I do not mean a leather strap; I mean a 
piece of rope with both ends spliced to- 
gether), pass it around your spar, one turn 
under and one turn over its own part, tuck- 
ing the end under, making what is called a 
clove hitch. This is put on about the height 
of your knees, leaving the loops of your 
strap hanging down. Place a foot in each 
loop and raise yourself up; pushing the 
hitch on your bos'n's chair up as high as 
you can reach, jam it tight; sit Arm in your 
chair and draw your feet up, strap and all, 
as high as you can; then raise up again, 
pushing your chair up as before, and thus 
proceed, hitchity-hitchity. Jack and the bean- 
stalk fashion, until you get there. 

"I have taken off and replaced church 
vanes in this way that were nine feet long, 
and weighed fifty pounds, and painted flag- 
staffs in the same manner. The bos'n's chair 
should be as snug to the hips as possible, 
in order to avoid all unnecessary play. In 
this way you are at your ease, and have 
your hands free to work with, obviating the 
necessity of hanging on with your eyebrows. 
Some years ago I saw a man make several 
attempts to shin a flagstaff about fifty feet 
high. When within a few feet of the top 
his strength would be exhausted and down 
he would come. With the chair and strap 
he could have remained there all day, and 
taken his dinner with him." 

The chief danger is the possibility of a 
sudden faintness. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



183 



STEAM MOTOR WAGON FOR HAULING 
CANNON. 



There lias recently been built in England, 
for the government, several steam motor 
wagons, constructed especially for the trans- 
port of artillery. Provision is made for two 
pieces of artillery on the motor wagon, 
while several more can be hauled on their 
own wheels, behind. The illustration ex- 
plains the method. 



AUTO TIRE FOR HEAVY TRUCKS. 



This tire is designed for motor trucks 
where the truck and load runs up into the 
tons. The accompanying illustration shows 
an Autraf tire on wheels designed for a 3- 
ton load each. They are of the cast rim and 
hub and wrought spoke type, common in 
farming and traction road engines, says 
Motor Age. The hubs are double and the 
spokes staggered. The rims are of 8-inch 
tread and 36-ineh diameter. Sixty cups 3 




Rims are 8 « IncH Tread 

inches wide and 1 inch deep, with one-half 
the depth projecting beyond and one-half 
recessed into the rim are fastened on their 
circumference. A rubber cylinder 2% inches 
wide and about the same length, weighing 
1 pound, is set in each cup and is held by 
a %-inch bolt, which passes through both 
rubber and wheel rim to the retaining nut. 
The rubber segments are readily reversible. 



The bolts have flat button heads, under 
which are washers nearly as wide as the 
rubber. These heads and washers take the 
road wear and make a flexible steel surface. 
It is said that the traction is effective. The 
empty machine used for a test readily shifts 
four loaded box cars, of an aggregate 
weight of 150 tons. 



BLOWING GLASS BATHTUBS. 



Interesting Process in Which Compressed Air 
Takes the Place of Man's Breath 



Glass bathtubs are the recent production 
of a German inventor, who has succeeded 
in making them commercially possible. 
These new tubs are much inferior in ap- 
pearance to the porcelain tubs so generally 
used, and in utility are nothing better, save 
in hospitals where medicated baths are oft- 
times given patients. The method of blow- 
ing them, however, is both unique and in- 
teresting. 

A thick cast-iron plate having an open- 
ing the exact shape the glass tub is to be, 
having a removable frame resting on its 
margin and held in position by locking le- 
vers, is mounted on a hollow shaft which 
is journaled in bearings and arranged to ro- 
tate. The removable frame holds the outer 
edge of the glass within the cast-iron plate. 
Compressed air is used for blowing such a 
large piece and is forced into the molten 
glass by means of the hollow shaft and 
the perforated cast-iron plate. A bedplate 
supports the apparatus. 

Sufficient molten glass is poured upon the 
iron plate from a ladle carried by a trav- 
eling crane. The glass spreads over the 
plate and under the frame, and rapidly cools 
at its outer edge. At this point plate, frame 
and glass are turned through a half circle 
so that the top frame is then underneath 
and the layer of hot, smooth glass hangs 
from the plate, supported by its chilled 
outer edge. The central part sinks uni- 
formly, the bedplate being brought into 
contact to secure this result, and the bot- 
tom of the tub is formed. The bedplate, 
falling slightly, pulls the glass down and 
so forms the walls, and then through the 
shaft and cast-iron plate compressed air is 
skilfully introduced into the tub so as to 
give the walls whatever inclination desired. 
This done, the blast is turned off, the lock- 
ing levers release the movable frame, and 
the tub, still hot, is rushed to the annealing 
oven, where it is carefully annealed, this 
operation being the most important of ali 



184 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



LARGEST GAS ENGINE POWER PLANT IN 
THE WORLD. 



Will Furnish Current for All the Street Cars 
in San Francisco 



The electric street cars of San Francisco 
are to be propelled by power generated by 
the largest gas engine plant in the world. 
California already is world famous for 
notable feats of electrical engineering, and 
now adds one more laurel. The order has 
just been placed for the new gas engines, 
which will require several mouths to build. 

There will be at the start three 4,000 kw. 
capacity, 3-phase, 13,200- volt, 25-cycIe, 88- 
r. p. m. revolving field alternating current 
generators, to be driven by 5,400-horse- 
power gas engines. These generators are 
the largest in capacity in the world driven 
by gas engines. 

♦ » » 

HOW TO VENTILATE A SCHOOL ROOM. 



The allotted time for contaminating the 
air in a school room where each pupil is 
allowed 130 cubic feet of space, is 8 min- 



\ 



\ 



Fi£f. l>>A.ir Movement Due to L/OC> 
catioik of Registers 

utes, according to E,. C. Carpenter, a recog- 
nized authority. A contributor to the Metal 
Worker describes different systems of ven- 
tilation showing the movement of air cur- 
rents. The system exemplified in Fig. 3, he 
says, works with admirable success in many 
of the metropolitan schools. He says: 

"If the ventilating register is placed near 
the ceiling, on the opposite side of the room, 
the movement of the air current will be 
that shown in Fig 1, none of the incoming 
air reaching the lower part of the roum. 




If the outlet is placed at the bottom of the 
opposite side of the room, the movement will 
be as shown in Fig. 2, the incoming air 
again missing the lower portion of the 
room, except where the air enters and 
leaves the room. Now if the register 
through which the air enters is placed 





-' — 


1 


,v 


' r 


ri 


i 


■J. ^'^-^ 


\ 


^^^"^ 


~" " 


^ — 1 



Fig'. 3— Diffusion of Aix> Through 
Best Lrocatioxx of Registers 

about 8 feet above the floor and the ven- 
tilating register at the floor on the same 
side of the room, the children sitting near 
the register will suffer no unpleasant effects 
from the incoming air, and the perfect cir- 
culation will take place as shown In 
Fig. 3." 

^~*^ 

BIG MAILS FOR EUROPE. 



The holiday mails from this country to 
Europe were the largest ever carried. The 
mails are landed in tenders and the illustra- 
tion shows one of them unloading from the 




Fi£^. 2--Air Movement -writH Differ- 
ent I^ocation of R.e^isters 



Cbristmas Mails 

"Baltic." The load was so large the lower 
deck was piled full, and hundreds of sacks 
and bags were packed on the bridge. The 
Shipping World, London, says there was 
$3,000,000 in the registered letters alone. 

♦-•-♦ 

Prussic acid is used in many localities in 
California for killing insects on fruit trees. 
One man's outfit for this work cost $10,000. 
Tents are placed around the trees and the 
fumes of the acid are liberated from a sau- 
cer at the roots of the tree. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 185 

PHoto^rapHing^ From a Captive Balloon 



MTitKin tKe R.eacK of Every- PHotograpHer, Amateur or Profes- 
sioiial»£xpense no Lron^er an Obstacle. 



It is quite possible to take plaotograplis 
from a captive balloon so small that the 
experiment is robbed of almost all of its 

expense and 
the apparatus 
is convenient 
to its owner 
on any fair 
day he may 
wish to use it. 
The balloon 
need not be of 
more than 500 
cubic feet ca- 
pacity (simply 
large enough 
to carry the 
camera and- 
light attach- 
ments) and 
may be inflat- 
ed by running 
a tube from 
the ordinary 
household gas 
meter to the 
balloon. 
The balloon should be spherical in shape 
and made of some very light material of 
close texture. Light silk is one of the best 
materials for the purpose. Stitch the gores 
well together with strong, fine silk and coat 
the balloon with linseed oil varnish— a very 
thick coat. The neck of the balloon where 





Fig. 1 

the gas is entered is commonly left open. 
The purpose in this is that on ascending, 
as the pressure of the external air dimin- 



ishes, the expansive force of the gas con- 
fined in the balloon greatly increases. For 
our purpose the balloon will not ascend to 
any great altitude, but were an ascent of 
several miles to be made, the expansive 
force of the gas would soon tear the silk 
envelope into shreds if there were not some 
means for a small amount of the gas to 
escape. 

Over the silk envelope place a network 
of light, strong cords hanging down to the 
lower half of the envelope, and having 
cords or leading lines attached for fasten- 
ing it to a hoop. A balloon of 500 cubic 
feet capacity can be inflated in about two 
hours. 

For taking the photographs a camera of 




box form with half- dark slides focused at 
infinity is most convenient. For attaching 
it to the balloon hoop use screw-clamped 
trunnions at its sides, mounted in triangu- 
lar side frames, so that it can be set at any 
angle desired.' This is clearly shown in 
Fig. 1. Fit to the lens of the camera a 
Bausch and Lomb shutter, as shown in Fig. 
2, arranging a hook to hold it until it is 
time to remove the "hook and release the 
shutter, this operation being performed by 
an eleoti-omagnct connected with a battery, 
Avhich arrangement will be described fur- 
ther. 

The length of the captive line may vary. 
Excellent photographs may be taken at au 
elevation of 150 feet and good ones at 500 
feet. We would recommend the use of a 
long line, as there is a pleasure in experi- 
menting with altitudes and comparing effects 
and results. The captive line should be 



186 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Fi^. 3.— Broomivater Creek, England, PHoto^rapHed at an £le-v-ation 

of 160 Feet. 



both light and strong and wound into a sin- 
gle cable with a double-strand flexible In- 
sulated conductor, such as is used in mak- 
ing telephone connections. 

In Fig. 5 is shown a reel for winding and 
unwinding this three-strand cable. The 
reel runs on ball bearings and the Inner 
ends of the two wires are connected with a 
plug terminal on the reel, so that a terminal 
battery may be connected at the moment 
the electric current is desired. The relation 




Fig. 5. 

of the battery to the reel is also shown in 
Fig. 5. The battery has an electric switch 
for controlling the time of transmission of 
the current which releases the shutter cov- 
ering the lens. 

With this much of the apparatus prepared 
the rest is a matter of little time and 
trouble. Inflate your balloon, tie a string 
around its neck until you are ready to send 
it up, and tie bags of sand to the leading 



strings to hold it down, should there be any 
delay in proceedings. If the frame for the 
camera is ready, tie the leading strings to 
the hoop, being careful to tie them securely 
and at equal lengths. Insert the swing 
frame of the camera in the hoop, connecting 
it firmly by two long bolts. Pass the loose 
ends of the wires into the front partition 
of the camera and fasten them to the ter- 
minal screws of the electromagnet. Insert 
the dark slide and remove its front; set the 
shutter and adjust the hook for holding it 
in place. 

If a true plan view is wanted, set the 
camera on its trunnions, with the lens 
pointing downwards. Release the reel and 
let the balloon carry the camera up— 100 ft, 
200 ft, or farther, according to your length 
of line and your wishes in regard to alti- 
tude. When it has ascended as far as de- 
sired apply a brake to the reel, insert the 
connection plug, press the button and send 
the current up the conductor, both that on 
the reel and that in the air, until it releases 
the shutter by means of the electromag- 
net lifting the hook and so effecting the ex- 
posure. The current may then be turned 
off and the balloon hauled down. To take 
another view, reset the shutter, change the 
plate and run the balloon up again. The 
captive balloon is held very steady by this 
method, whereas did the photographer 
himself ascend to take his views, the aerial 
craft would be susceptible to the least 
change in ballast. One aeronaut tells of 
sudden change in elevation of 20 or 30 feet 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



187 



NEW GERMAN LOCOMOTIVE ATTAINS A 
HIGH SPEED. 



A new type of locomotive for express pur- 
poses is being tested in Germany. The 
locomotive and tender are entirely cased in 
a metal sheathing which is keel-shaped in 
front to give the least air resistance pos- 
sible, and in this one point it is expected 
that from 250 to 300 horsepower will be 
saved. 



the weight of the tender 64 tons. The ten- 
der carries 7 tons of coal. The locomotive 
is constructed for a speed of 80 miles an 
hour. 

♦ » » 

HOW TO TIGHTEN UP A SNARE DRUM. 



The snare drum gets its name from the 
four or six small twisted rawhide cords 
stretched across the lower drum head. 
When the top head is struck these cords or 




New Type of German Locomotive Has Engineer's Cab in Front — Attains Eigli Speed. 



The engine-driver's place is in a cab situ- 
ated in the front of the pointed part of the 
engine. There is also in the cab a second or 
assistant driver, who also assists the stoker 
in his work. For running the engine back- 
wards, which is found necessary in railway 
stations, the assistant-driver looks after the 
brake and whistle at the back of the tender. 
From here and also from the stoker's place, 
verbal messages can be sent to the driver's 
cab. In order to facilitate communications 
on the engines, there are passages on the 
right and left within the steel sheathing. 
At the back of the tender there is the usual 
passage to the train, so that it is possible 
to keep up communication throughout the 
whole length of the train, from the engine- 
driver in the front part to the guard at the 
end. 

All the wheels of the tenders and loco- 
motive are provided with air brakes, which 
exceed in power any other in use. The 
length of the locomotive alone is 38 feet. 
Its weight fully equipped is 94 tons, and 



snares snap sharply against the lower head 
and greatly increase the resonance of the 
drum. 

It is interesting to watch a drummer 
tighten up the snare drum heads so as to 
produce an even tension of the parchments, 
says Railway and Locomotive Engineering. 
He first grasps the two press hoops with 
clamps united by steel rods with a small 
thumb nut on top of each. These clamps 
are placed at intervals all around the drum. 

Let us suppose that a clock dial plate rep- 
resents the drum head and the figures on 
the dial indicate the position of the clamps. 
The order of tightening the clamps would 
be much as follows: First the XII, IV and 
VIII, then X. II and VI and lastly XI, III 
and VII. Thus an even tension is obtained 
and the drum gives a sharper and better 

tone. 

■» » » 

The great Simplon tunnel under the Alpn 
and 12 Mi hiiles long is completed. It wa« 
begun in 1898. 



188 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



WONDERFUL REVOLVING STAGE. 



A group of sprinters stripped for work, 
and running at full speed on the stage of a 
theater, but constantly in sight of the audi- 
ence was the novel sight recently witnessed 
at the London Coliseum. That a man should 
run and not progress would be a paradox 
but for the fact that the runners were on a 



circular platform whicli was made to re- 
volve as rapidly as they ran, and thus the 
performers did not pass from view. The 
mechanical arrangement is quite like that 
employed in the movable sidewalk. 

The construction consists of three con- 
centric platforms which are revolved by 
means of fourteen small electric motors. In 
Fig. 4, at A, B, C and D is shown the 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 



189 



arrangement of the dials by which the 
speeds desired are telegraphed to the 
operator, Tvho is located in the gallery above. 
One of the dials is shown in detail in Fig. 3 
and in Fig. 2 the speed required is being 
telegraphed by means of a dial. A general 
view of the revolving stage arrangement is 
shown in Fig. 4, a foot-race being in prog- 
ress on the revolving tables. 

♦-*-♦ 

PILOT SHIP "FRASER" FOR CALCUTTA 



A new pilot ship, the "Frasei*," has been 
built in England and is on her way to India, 
where she will be stationed at Calcutta. The 
ship is 281 feet long, 35 feet beam, and built 




Indiax\ Pilot SHip 

to keep the sea in all weathers. Twin-screw 
propellers and ample boiler capacity enable 
a speed of 15 knots per hour over long dis- 
tances. 

^~—* 

ENGLISH SPRING WHEEL FOR AUTOS. 



Spring wheels as a substitute for pneu- 
matic tires are attracting attention in Eng- 




Auto Soring "WHeel 

land as well as in this country. The inven- 
tion illustrated has a pair of pointed star- 
shaped steel plates secured to each hub, and 
connected by a pin at each point of the 



star. Each pin carries a pair of triangular 
equalizing pieces between the plates, and a 
pair of triangular levers outside. Between 
the equalizing pieces are a pair of rollers, 
the rollers on adjacent triangles being con- 
nected by a series of plate- springs, the cen- 
ters of which are attached to the star-plates 
by means of bolts passing freely through 
distance-pieces between the plates. Each 
bolt is also connected by pin joints to one 
pair of corners of the triangular levers al- 
ready mentioned, the remaining pair of cor- 
ners being jointed to the center of a pair of 
segments having rollers at the extremities 
which bear against the inner side of the rim 
of the wheel. It will be seen that anj' pres- 
sure on the rim of the wheel is transmitted 
from the plate-spring immediately opposite 
the point of application to the whole of the 
springs round the wheel by the agency of 
the equalizing pieces, and, further, that 
these springs are protected from any 
oblique strains by the triangular levers. 

^~»~¥' 

DEVICE TO INDICATE POLARITY OF 
ELECTRIC CURRENT. 



A simple instrument is now procurable 
for determining the poles of a battery. A 
galvanometer is perfectly well adapted for 
the purpose, but is not very practical, says 




Polarity Indicator 

Scientific American. The trouble with pole- 
paper and common blue-print paper is thai 
both have to be moistened. A simple pole- 
tester, which can be had from any good 
electrical supply house, is shown in the il- 
lustration above. It consists of a glass tube 
closed at the two ends by a metal cap which 
is provided with a binding screw and a short 
internal metal rod. I'or the determination 
of polarity, the apparatus is put in circuit, 
and the liquid that it contains immediately 
becomes red at the negative pole. After 
the operation is finished, the tube is shaken 
to cause the color to disappear. 



190 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



ONLY ENGINE OF ITS TYPE EVER BUILT. 



A most unusual engine was recently in- 
stalled on a scow in New York harbor, 
where it is operating a circular saw which 
cuts off piling at a depth of 30 ft. below 
the surface of the water. The saw is 
mounted on a vertical shaft and driven by 




Courtesy of the Buffalo Forge Co. 

Cuts Off Piling 30 Feet BeneatH 
tHe "Urater 

a 10-in. belt, which, from the peculiar con- 
struction of the engine has a quarter-turn 
in it. 

The engine is the only one of its type 
ever constructed. It is of the enclosed type 
with a vertical shaft having two double- 
acting cylinders, made of close-grained 
charcoal iron, 10 In. in diameter with a 
10-in. stroke. Steam is admitted by a sin- 
gle piston valve controlled by one governor 
located in the flywheel of the engine and 
supported on a steel plate attached to the 
arms of the wheel. 

A thrust-bearing situated at the top of 
the shaft, directly under the flywheel, car- 
ries the weight of the main shaft, flywheel, 
governor and part of the connecting rods — 
a total of 1,750 lbs. distributed over 4,791 
sq. in., a maximum pressure per square inch 
of 40 lbs. 

The shoe of the crosshead, which is of 
the locomotive type, completely surrounds 
the guide-bar. The ratio of the length of 
the connecting rod to the stroke is a little 
over two. 

The engine is provided with a flywheel 5 
ft. in diameter, and 13 in. in breadth, hav- 
ing a flange turned on one side. The crown 
of the wheel is only 5% in. from the top 
of the wheel, so the belt tends to run above 
the flange and not wear its edge by contact 
with the flange. 



One of the especial features of the en- 
gine is the lubricating system. All the oil 
is taken from a central reservoir and fed to 
the bearings by tubes, each tube having a 
sight-feed arrangement in connection. 

4 * » 

A MOTOR WELL-BORING MACHINE. 



A motor well-boring machine in which 
one gasoline engine is used both for pro- 
pelling the apparatus from one place to an- 
other and for operating the boring machin- 
ery, also, is the invention of J. Ai Yates, of 
Alturas, Cal. 

The machine is adapted to speeds of one 
and one-half, three and six miles per hour. 
Because of the very bad roads to be traveled 
the rear wheels are fitted with steel tires 
5 in. wide with %-in. "grousers" riveted on 
to give a grip where traction is poor. When 
the wheels cannot get grip enough to move 
the machine out of a bad place an 800-ft. 
steel cable is reeled out, secured to a tree 
or rock, and the motor thrown into gear 
with the cable drimi, thus pulling the car 
out. The frame of the machine, construct- 
ed of steel of I-section with channel steel 
cross members, is very strong. 




Motor "Well-Boring Macbine 

Mr. Yates, in testing this novel apparatus, 
found it capable of climbing any hill having 
a road of any kind. The gasoline engine 
weighs 720 lbs., and the machine complate 
weighs 4,559 lbs. 



REMOVING LIME IN WATER JACKET. 



The removal of lime incrustation is al- 
ways a moi-e or less difficult job. Muriatic 
acid, of course, cuts the lime and dissolves 
it, but it is liable to cut quite deep into the 
iron as well and leave it rusted, says Gas 
Power. A small amount of common wash- 
ing soda used in water after you have 
washed out the acid will neutralize the acid. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 191 

Larggest Gas Generator Unit in tKe World 



Produces 3,000,000 Ctxbic Feet of Gas Bvery 20 IIours«i«In Operation 

at OaKland. Cal. 



What is believed to be the largest single 
unit illuminating gas generator in the world 
is producing 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas 
every 20 hours in Oakland, Cal. 

The scarcity of coal and the abundance of 
oil has driven every coal gas plant but one 
in the state to the use of oil, and the former 
high price of gas has dropped to that pre- 
vailing in eastern states. The mammoth 



the generator is eleven feet four inches, the 
neck piece at the toi3 of the combustion 
chamber is drawn in to six feet. On the top 
of the corbel work, wbich forms the dome 
of the combustion chamber, there is a shelf 
nearly three feet wide encircling the gener- 
ator, and on this shelf checker brick are laid 
to a point reaching the bottom of the flue 
connecting the two shells. The superheat is 




Tbis MacHine ivith One Man Produces 150,000 Cubic Feet of Gas 

Per Hour 



gas-from-oil generator is described in the 
Purifier. 

The set comprises two steel shells, cylin- 
drical in shape, sixteen feet in diameter and 
twenty-eight feet high, one being used as a 
generator, while the other is a superheater. 
These shells are connected at the top by a 
flue box, so arranged as to provide the larg- 
est possible opening for the flow of gas. 
Unlike other oil gas generators, this one con- 
tains no arches, and the oil is treated by 
heat radiated from checker brick and the 
walls of the lining, instead of by direct con- 
tact. The bottom portion of the generator 
is an open combustion chamber, drawn in at 
the top in a manner similar to the dome of 
a cupola, and while the inside diameter of 



filled with checker brick, laid in the ordinary 
manner, with vertical flues of large area. 

The generator is connected by two 33- 
inch outlet pipes to a wash box pro- 
vided with a seal and acting as a hydraulic 
main, and from this box the gas passes 
through a scrubber 12 feet by 30 feet, and 
two scrubbers 10 feet by 30 feet. The wash- 
ing of the gas is done by means of sea water, 
as this gas does not seem to be as sensitive 
as coal gas for Vv^hich fresh water must be 
used. 

This machine which produces 150,000 
cubic feet of gas per hour is handled by the 
labor of one man. There is no shoveling of 
coal and the most difficult work the gas 
maker does is to open and close a valve. 



192 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Fins for Propelling Submarines 

S^irims I^iKe a FisK— Safety CKamber Permits £scape SKould tKe 

Boat SinK. 



Fins for propelling, impelling, directing 
and controlling submarine vessels is the es- 
sential feature of a new system of under- 
water navigation invented by a Mr. Middle- 
ton, of England. One of the important re- 



submarine vessel should be capable of mov- 
ing in a vertical plane even better than in 
a horizontal plane. 

The tins are driven by electric motors and 
the screw propeller provided, in addition 



suits accomplished by these fins is to enable to the fins, but its purpose is merely to 




Fi^* 1— Interior SHo-win^ Safety CHamber 



the vessel to be navigated in three direc- 
tions, instead of two, as in the case of the 
screw-propeller. That is^ the submarine 
vessel equipped with the fins is able to be 
controlled in a vertical plane, instead of 
making alterations in its buoyancy to ac- 
complish this end. This is most important, 
says the Illustrated London News, as the 



fc-S S-ON rtcvesses Pur& »=umc» 

Ml pal WtM 

EC3 12^31' ii^j 
I0I ■■ ■■ 




i MoTon of 

RUO OCR, 



Key Board mtKIcH Does THin^s 



simplify the mechanism for impressing the 
motion on the fins. The Middleton vessel, 
it is claimed, can be navigated and fought 
by the remarkably small crew of three men. 
Six men may be carried where a change of 
watch is required. The keyboard places all 
the parts under control of one officer, who 
by its manipulation may fire the guns, con- 
trol the inclhiation of the fins, set the fin- 
motion going, reverse the electro-motor, con- 
trol rudder motor, control the rudder, put 
pump in gear, control screw, and discharge 
topedoes. In Fig. 1, A and B show the fins 
fiexed for raising the boat. A fin in detail 
is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 1 shows the in- 
ternal arrangement of a 300-ton submarine. 
The action of the fins is patterned after 
those of a fish, which by an almost imper- 
ceptible movement of its fins can place its 
body at any angle or poise. 

Still another valuable feature of the Mid- 
dleton boat is the automatic pump, which 
acts when the boat has descended to a 
depth that is dangerous, and which instant- 
ly changes the course of the vessel. 

Another most interesting and novel feature 
of the craft is the safety chamber, by means 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



19? 



of which the crew can be liberated and 
escape to the surface in case of accident to 
the submarine. Had tliis device been sup- 
plied in the ill-fated English submarine her 
crew could have escaped. The safety cham- 
ber is shown in the cut, and consists of a 



strong steel tank entered from the bottom. 
After the crew are in, the opening is closed 
and the tank released, rising quickly to the 
surface by its own buoyancy. On reaching 
the surface a cover can be removed from the 
top and the crew display distress signals. 




Fi^. 3.— Detail of Fin: Pump kVHicH Prevents Descent to Dangerous EeptK. 



TO REVIVE FROM SUFFOCATION. 



By inhalation of poisonous gases, vapors', 
such as illuminating gas, charcoal vapor, 
gas in wells, sewer gas, coal gas, mine gas, 
etc. 

Remove the patient to open air and send 
for a physician. 

In rescuing, avoid risks. If in a room, 
open and close the door rapidly to fan and 
force air into it; break out windows. Do 



not take a light into a cellar, mine, well, 
apartment, or any place where gas has 
escaped. Tie a rope around the waist of 
rescuer; cover his mouth and nose with a 
handkerchief wet with vinegar and water. 

Get the patient to fresh air. Dash cold 
water on his face and chest. Use artiflciat 
respiration the same as in drowning. Apply 
hot bottles to body; put mustard plasters 
to heart, soles of feet and wrists; when re- 
covering, mild stimulants may be used. 



194 



ENCY(!LOPEDIA 



GRADING COUNTRY ROADS WITH A 
TRACTION ENGINE. 



In the vicinity of Duraut, la., horses are 
used no more in grading the country roads, 
for it was found that a traction engine 
could draw two graders and talie the place 
of 12 good horses, with an engineer to 
take care of the engine and one man to 
handle each road grader. 




Does tHe Work of 12 Good Horses 

The engine used was a double cylinder 
weighing about 2C,000 pounds, having 
61/^-inch cylinder bore, 12-Jnch stroke, 200 
revolutions per minute, and of about 125 
pounds steam pressure. The graders are 
coupled to the tender, which is just behind 
the engine, and which carries a half-ton of 
coal and eight barrels of water. A team 
hauls an additional supply of water and 
coal enough to keep the machines going all 
day. The road graders do not follow the 
same track, but go side by side, one a little 
behind the other. The engine travels on 
the road about as fast as a team walks or- 
dinarily. 



MOSQUITO NETTING INSTEAD OF 
MEDICINE. 



"I should have no fear of catching fever 
in the heart of a swamp if I had a proper 
sleeping place," declares Mr. A. W. Bayly, 
owner of the Gold Fields News, Barberton, 
Portuguese East Africa, and what Mr. Bayly 
considers a proper sleeping place is a place 
enclosed with mosquito netting or iron wire 
netting. To substantiate his statement Mr, 
Bayly relates personal experience. 

After an absence he returned to his home 
to find that his eldest son had suffered 
from five successive attacks of malarial fe- 
ver in one season, and he determined to 
try some preventive measures. The only 
gauze he could obtain at the place was a 
painted cotton fabric at 18 cents a square 



yard. With strips of old bamboo blind and 
small staples he fastened netting on the 
outside of all sash frames in such a man- 
ner that the windows could be opened 
readily. At French casements the gauze 
was fastened to the outside Venetian sun 
shutters; where there were no shutters it 
was fastened to the door or window frame 
itself. Outside doors were protected by 
light-framed porches. With a little care 
about closing doors or windows quickly 
the plan worked admirably. Mr. Bayly 
states that with this protection they have 
had no eases of fever for three years, 
though sometimes members of the family 
have been in unprotected houses for the 
night. There is only one species of mos- 
quito—the Anopheles— which carries infec- 
tion, and it only works at night and is in- 
nocuous during the daytime. It is slug- 
gish and less industrious than the other 
species— tlie Culex— and therefore is not so 
apt to get in, but once in, its presence is 
not detected easily, for, unlike the Culex, 
it does not hum. 

Later v\^ire gauze was obtainable, but on 
the whole was not so satisfactory as the 
cotton gauze. The wire gauze has a nicer 
appearance and does not collect dust, as 
does the cotton, but the sea air causes it 
to oxidize and drop to pieces. 

During some experiments as to the effi- 
ciency of this metliod, the camps of some 
railway construction gangs in Italy were 
protected with gauze and the men cau- 
tioned to be indoors between sunset and 
sunrise. An equal number were left un- 
protected, but dosed with quinine and other 
preventives. On the sections protected 
with screens the percentage of fever cases 
was but 5 per cent, while on the unpro- 
tected sections it was 95 per cent. 

It is stated by United States Consul Hol- 
lis, Lourenco Marquez, Portuguese East 
Africa, that where wire netting, of English 
manufacture, has been used for this pur- 
pose, it is falling to pieces after a year's 
use, and that the only mosquito net- 
tings that will stand the climate are the 
different galvanized and composition net- 
tings made in the United States, and there- 
fore firms in this country are receiving 
large orders. 

» » » 

Nikola Tesla has announced the-invention 
of a "telautomatic" torpedo which, if adopt- 
ed by the governments will stop the building 
of battleships and make forts needless. He 
says this new torpedo can be directed and 
submerged at will with a greater range than 
the largest gun; that its precision is unerr- 
ing and its effect wholly destructive. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



195 



SUSPENSION BRIDGE FERRY AT NEW- GALVANIZING BY THE "SHERARDIZING" 
PORT. PROCESS. 



An aerial ferry is being built at Newport, 
England, over the river Usk. Instead of a 
steel girder construction as in the bridge 
ferry at Duluth, described in full on 
page 204, this one is hung from 
a suspension bridge consisting of sixteen 
steel cables each 2% inches diameter. The 
span is 645 feet, and the towers 241 feet 
high are guyed by 32 steel ropes carried 
back 520 feet. The Shipping World says: 

The platform carrying the traveling frame 
from which the car will be suspend- 
ed will have two service foot-ways, 
and its total weight will be 539 tons. 
The travelins' frame will be fur- 
nished with sixty cast steel wheels, 
carried in steel brackets secured to 
the longitudinal members of the 
frame, and will be 104 feet in 
length over all. The car will be 
attached to the traveling frame by 
thirty suspension ropes, which will 
be so fixed as to prevent any swag- 
ing motion during high winds. It 
will be divided into a central road- 
way space, and two roofed-in foot- 
ways and a pilot house or motor- 
man's cabin will be erected on one 
side to contain the controlling ap- 
paratus. The car will be 33 feet in 
length and 40 feet in width, and in 
itself will weigh SV/^ tons. It is 
designed for a proof load of 66 tons 
in addition to Its own weight. The 
frame and car will be propelled by steel 
wire ropes wound on a drum worked by 
electric motors erected at one end of the 
bridge platform, the actual control being 
from the car itself. The rate of travel will 
be 10 feet per second. 



New and Simple Method by Which Iron and Steel 

Are Protected from Corrosion. — Low 

Temperature Required. 

Hitherto electro-zincing, or cold-galvaniz- 
ing, and hot galvanizing have been the twc. 
methods used in coating iron and steel with 
zinc as a protection against corrosion. Both 
of these methods have great disadvantages. 
"Sherardizing," a new process lately em- 
ployed for this purpose, combines the good 




OPENS WINDOWS WITH COMPRESSED 
AIR. 



Opening and closing windows is the latest 
application of compressed air. An ordinary 
water motor or small electric motor in the 
basement does the compressing and the air 
is conducted through small pipes to one 
cylinder for each window. Two small valves 
control the action of the piston, one for rais- 
ing, the other to lower the sash. The device 
moves noiselessly and is said to be inex- 
pensive. 



A good shellac varnish is made of 3Vv> 
pounds orange shellac thoroughly dissolved 
in 1 gallon of wood alcohol. 



F. ii. 1. Sherardizing Drum for iStnal] VTorK. 

points of the two other methods and fur- 
ther recommends itself on the quality of 
simplicity, the coating of zinc being af lied 
at a temperature several hundred de ees 
lower than the melting point of zinc. 

Articles to be Sherardized are first freed 
of scale and oxide by dipping in an acid so- 
lution or by sandblasting. Zinc dust, ob- 
tained during the process of distilling zinc 
from its ores, is used for coating the metal. 
The zinc dust costs about $97 per ton. It 
cannot be smelted or reduced to a metallic 
form under ordinary conditions, even by 
very high temperatures, it is, therefore, es- 
pecially adapted to a process of dry gal- 
vanizing as the zinc will not melt when 
the furnaces are overheated. Articles to be 
Sherardized are placed in airtight recep- 
tacles charged with zinc dust. The inside 
of the receptacle is coated with plumbago 
or black lead to prevent it becoming coated 
with zinc. Articles coated with grease take 
a better coating of zinc than those free 
from grease. 

The type of furnace generally used for 



196 



E N C Y f ; L P E D I A 




Fi^. 2. Controlling Valves .to Fur« 
naces. 

small work has a cylindrical closed iron 
chamber which is rotated on an axis. The 
chamber has a side door of iron, if to be 
used for small articles, such as bolts, small 
castings, nuts, etc., or an end door if for 
tubes and other oblong articles. The con- 
struction differs a little in these two cases, 
in order to insure the articles being turned 
over so they will receive a uniform coat- 




Fi^. 3. Gas Burner and Drum, 



ing. In such a furnace one of the trunnions 
is made hollow so that a pyrometer may be 
inserted to register the temperature. Bun- 
sen gas burners are arranged below the fur- 
nace for heating the drum and the whole 
is enclosed in a cast-iron shell lined with 
fire-brick. The drum may be geared to ro- 
tate constantly, or may be turned intermit- 
tently by hand. (Fig. 1.) 

In one big Sherardizing plant where four 
furnaces capable of taking drums 8 inches 
by 2 inches, with a capacity of two tons of 
material per charge, are in use, the fur- 
naces are heated by gas led by iron pipes 
to the back of the furnaces. The supply is 
controlled by iron cocks and the gas is con- 
ducted through brick channels, having in- 
lets (A, Fig. 2), through which the air is 
drawn. The gas is burnt through cast-iron 
burners (A, Fig. 3.) 

To charge the drum it is placed on a 
truck, which is run on to a table (Fig. 4); 
one end is lowered by gearing and the zinc 
dust is charged into the tilted end from an 
upper floor through a chute (F, Fig. 5.) A 
drum being u'scharged over an iron grating 
which allows the zinc dust to fall into a 
chamber below, from which it is raised by 
a chain elevator is shown at G, Fig. 5. 
When charged with the zinc dust the drum 
is brought to a horizontal position, the air 
is exhausted and the truck run on tracks to 
the furnace; it is then lifted on to a furnace 
truck, which economizes heat. The drum is 
pushed into the furnace, the door is closed 
and the furnace heated to the temperature 
required, or from 500 degrees to 600 degrees 
F. When it has been in the furnace a suffi- 
cient length of time the door is raised and 
the drum and carriage drawn out into an 
open yard. Here it is allowed to cool until 
it can be easily handled. 

Sherardizing forms a more lustrous and 
metallic coating than does cold galvanizing 
and a more uniform deposit than any other 
process. 

"Articles can be Sherardized at a few 
hours' notice," says The Electrical Maga- 
zine, London, "starting all cold." The tem- 
perature required is so low that the mini- 
mum of fuel is consumed; the articles do 
not require so much cleansing as in other 
processes, making the labor less and the 
economy more. 

♦-•-♦ 

To make a good blackboard paint moisten 
4 oz. lampblack with alcohol; rub out with 
a spatula, and gradually add 1 qt. shellac. 
Stir in 3 oz. flour of pumice and 3 oz. pul- 
verized rottenstone. Strain carefully; apply 
quickly and evenly; let stand two days and 
apply another coat. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



197 




OSTRICH RACING 



Fi^. 4'.— Placing Drtxm on tHe Table for 
Cliar^in^i 




When a dealer goes to an os- 
trich farm to buy a bird or two 
he selects the ones he wants by 
racing them. He chooses two or 
three he likes and these are 
ranged in line and shown a 
bunch of figs. Then the man 
with the figs goes a quarter of a 
mile away and the ostriches are 
started. 

It is quite thrilling to see them 
with their long bony legs cover- 
ing the ground at an amazing 
rate. The one who wins seems 
to enjoy his victory and if he is 
much ahead of the others eases 
up towards the last and reaches 
the goal at a walk, perhaps. 

The dealer buys the winner, as 
the fastest is also the strongest. 



NEW EXCURSION BOAT REGU- 
LATIONS RIGID. 



Fi^. 5*— Drtxm in Position for Char^in^ 



New government regulations 
for excursion boats require that 
loose or compressed cork life 
preservers shall be abolished and 
the attaching of preservers to 
racks by wires, also. A preserv- 
er must be provided for every 
passenger and member of the 
crew. 

All steamboats must be provid- 
ed with fire buckets, barrels, 
axes and steam fire pumps capa- 
ble of throwing a stream from 
two nozzles on each deck, at least 
fifty feet. 



Taking Instantaneous PHoto^rapHs By f^lectric 

LigHt. 



Instantaneous photographs may now be 
taken by electric light. A French photog- 
rapher has devised an apparatus by which 
he can control perfectly the quality and 
amount of illumination and take photographs 
instantaneously at the moment of the sub- 
ject's best pose. 

A large parabolic reflector of aluminum 
has placed on its inner edge a series of in- 
candescent lamps shaded with ground-glass 
sci-eens. These light up the subject so that 
the photographer can secure the pose and 
determine the instant for the real exposure. 
An arc light with three carbons is in the 



center of the aluminum reflector, one car- 
bon being fixed, the others movable. 

To take a photograph, the subject is ar- 
ranged, the sensitive plate exposed, and the 
instant the pose is best the photographer 
presses a rubber bulb which draws the two 
movable carbons across the fixed one, form- 
ing a brilliant arc. The movable carbons 
are drawn away from the fixed one by an 
electromagnet the moment the current 
passes through the lamp, thus extiug'uish- 
ing the arc. The time of exposure is about 
one-fiftieth second and the results are said 
to be most satisfactory. 



198 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CONICAL WIND MOTORS USED IN CON- 
NECTION WITH STEAM ENGINES. 



The Danish government, which has de- 
voted more study to windmills than any- 
other nation, announces tlie result of sev- 
eral years' experiments and declares in 
favor of the conical type of air motor. The 
experiments were conducted by Prof. La 
Cour, near the town of Ascov. 




Conical 'Wind Motor 'viritK 'W^in^s 
Open 

Some time ago a great storm shattered 
four of the 10 sails of a windmill, but the 
motor showed greater power than before. 
This fact showed that the ancient principle 
according to whicli the amount of power 
gained would be the higher the greater the 
surface, was false, and further experiments 
by Prof. La Couv go to bear out this con- 
clusion. 

The Electrical Review, London, says: 
That the wind acts on a perforated surface 
with a power much greater than in the case 
of an equal surface closed throughout, is 
borne out by the following experiment: 
Two plank fences of the same thickness and 
height, one of which had intervals between 
the planks, while the other was compact, 
were submitted to the action of the wind, 
when the open fence was thrown down, 
though the compact fence obviously opposed 
the greater surface to the wind. A further 
fact known in this connection is that per- 
forated sails will work more satisfactorily 
than those free from any holes, and this has 
been utilized in a recent Italian invention. 



Conical wind motors are in many cases 
used in the place of a steam engine. Pumps, 
wood and iron-working shops, and agricul- 
tural and milling plants may be operated by 
these wind motors, which do not require any 
appreciable amount of supervision; they may 
also be used for generating electricity. For 
the latter purpose, the firm of Theodor 
Renter & Schumann, of Kiel, Germany, who 
are the manufacturers of the motors, have 
designed a very simple apparatus for regu- 
lating the speed of the gearing driven from 
the wind motor with absolute accuracy, as 
required by a dynamo. Another device en- 
ables a wind motor and a steam engine to 
work jointly on the same transmission, 
when the wind motor serves to relieve the 
steam engines, thus securing a considerable 
saving of coal. In the event of the intensity 
of the wind decreasing so that the wind 
motor cannot keep up to the speed of the 




Conical "Wind Motor -witlx "Wing^s 
Closed 

steam engine, another device will throw it 
out automatically during the time of low 
wind intensity; the steam engine never has 
to turn the wind motor round. 



ELECTRIC FANS IN WINTER. 



Electric fans may be used to advantage 
even in winter. Placed iu show windows 
they will prevent frost forming on the glass 
except in the very coldest weather, and when 
set upon a steam radiator they will drive the 
warm air to any part of the room desired. 



Flat steel scrapers are the best tools for 
removing polish from flat surfaces, 



Locomotive Without Fire or Water 



Would MaKe Crossing the Continent "WitKout Stop- 
ping Possible. 



A locomotive without water, fire or 
smoke, unencumbered by the five tons of 
coal and 7,000 gallons of water usually car- 
ried by the steam engine; drawing no ten- 
der, but provided instead with an engine for 
generating electricity: a clean, strong pow- 
erful engine drawing a 2,000-ton train and 



energy produced passes up the smokestack, 
4 per cent goes to the boilers, and 2% per 
cent only to the driving wheels. A writer 
in one of our daily papers states: 

"Driving wheels can be made just so large 
and no larger. Connecting rods can be 
made .iust so long and no longer. If the 




t-uurtesy uf Ihe .^ianufa.-tuxer'g liecord 

THe Dream of Modern Tractiona«SKovirii\£i Interior of Lrocomotive. 



speeding across the continent ffortn^ew 
York to San Francisco, without stop or de- 
lay, and at the average rate of 100 miles 
per hour — this is a dream of modern trac- 
tion, worked out theoretically with mathe- 
matical precision, now being constructed 
for the Southern Pacific Railroad and soon 
to be put to the practical test of a long 
trial run. 

It is generally accepted by railroad man- 
agers that the limit has been reached in 
sfiam locomotive construction. One axiom 
in this line has been "a pound of weight to 
carry a pound of weight." Locomotives have 
gained 100,000 pounds in weight in the last 
five years, and tender capacity has been in- 
creased accordingly. Of the fuel consumed 
by the steam locomotive 96 per cent of the 



driving wheels are giant affairs it means a 
tremendous weight to the machine that 
must come on the tracks in a comparatively 
small space. There is one way to 'spread 
the weight,' and that is to have longer con- 
necting rods. But here a difficulty is en- 
countered. Tractive power necessary for 
high speed or great draught cannot be ob- 
tained if the rods are much over 12Vj feet. 
This fact has put steam locomotive builders 
between the devil of big wheels and the 
deep sea of the short connecting rod. If the 
steam locomotive could be made more com- 
pact, greater power could be obtained, but, 
on the other hand, the weight would be so 
concentrated that there is not a curve in the 
roadbed or a bridge on the line that could 
stand the strain," 
99 



200 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 



201 



In the proposed new locomotive an in- 
ternal combustion engine, which heretofore 
has been applied to stationary engine work 
only, will be used to drive a dynamo provid- 
ing electric power for the locomotive. The 
internal combustion engine has a thermal 
efficiency of 38 per cent. There is a loss in 
the transfer to the generator and armatures, 
but 28.35 per cent of the energy "gets on to 
the motor and axles." In other words, the 
new locomotive is expected to save more 
than eleven times as much energy as the 
steam locomotive. 

The principle of the new engine is 
summed up as follows: 

"Its action is on what is known as the 
four-stroke cycle. There is a compressed 
air reservoir, from which the power is ob- 
tained for starting. This gives the piston 
its first stroke when it takes in air— air 
alone at atmospheric pressure and tempera- 
ture. The second stroke compresses this 
air to a high pressure and to a temperature 
of about 1,000° F. The third stroke is what 
is known as the working stroke. At this 
point oil is sprayed into this hot incandes- 
cent air— one can hardly imagine Avhat 
1,000° F. means. The amount of oil that is 
sprayed in is regulated by governors. Dur- 
ing the first part of this stroke the combus- 
tion of this oil is carried on at a constant 
pressure for a period which is regulated by 
the amount of oil sprayed in. The second 
part of the stroke is practically an expan- 
sion without transference of heat. The 
fourth stroke exhausts the gases. 

"The only fuel used is the crude oil that 
costs from three to five cents a gallon. 
Petroleum or any kind of crude oil can be 
employed. The cost per horsepower hour is 
said to be less than half that for steam." 



POWERFUL HOISTING ENGINE USED IN 
A DEEP MINE. 



A 5.000-horsepower hoisting engine in- 
tended for lifting a load of something over 
41,000 pounds from a depth of 6,000 feet at 
the rate of 5,000 feet per minute has recently 
been installed by the Tamarack Mining Co., 
of Calumet, Mich. The total weight of this 
powerful machine, which is of the direct 
acting reversible type, with a drum keyed 
on the main shaft, is 1,200,000 pounds and 
the huge drum, which has a capacity for 
6,000 feet of l^i-inch rope, with its shaft 
weighs 300,000 pounds. 

Some of the leading dimensions of the 



engine are: Steam cylinders (four), 34x60 
inches; main bearing, 24x42 inches; crank- 
pins, 12x15 Inches; crosshead pins, 6%xl2i^ 
inches; diameter of rope drum, 25 feet; 
length of drum, 24 feet 6 inches. The cages 
used are double decked balanced cages, the 
empty one descending while the loaded cage 
is being hoisted. In this operation the load 
the engine would ordinarily handle consists 
of 21,000 pounds of rope; cage, 4,200 pounds; 
two cars, 4,000 pounds; rock, 12,000 pounds, 
a total of 41,200 pounds. The engine frames 
are of the hollow girder type, and rest on 
large cast-iron sub-bases, the whole being 
fastened to the foundations by rods. 




Rope Drum 25 Feet Longf 

The throttles, reversing gears, cut-off gear 
and brake are all operated from the plat- 
form on which the operator sits, as shown 
in the illustration. Here also is located the 
"miniatures" which indicate at all times 
the position of the cars and from which the 
safety stop is operated. By means of this 
safety stop the motion can be arrested and 
reversed whenever the cages are in danger. 
There are two sets of powerful brakes, one 
on each end of the drum. The engine may 
be run from one turn per minute to 54 turns 
per minute with an action equally smooth 
and perfectly controlled. 



202 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MODEL OF VERY LARGE LOCOMOTIVE. 



One of our readers, who is a railroad offi- 
cial, sends a photograpli of a model of a 
very large "Columbia" type passenger loco- 
motive. The model is made almost entirely 
of wood, and as shown in the illustration 
is a very handsome piece of work. In tliese 
days of mammoth locomotives the work is 
extremely interesting as showing the propor- 
tions which a machine built on the lines 
shown would look like. The builder says: 
"It is built on a scale of 30 inches to the 
inch, and although I realize it would not be 
practicable to build a machine of this size, 



wheel base driving, 8 ft. 6 in.; wheel base 
rigid, 18 ft. 5 in.; wheel base, total engine, 
29 ft. 4 in.; wheel base, engine and tender, 
51 ft. 6 in.; tank capacity, 6,000 gal.; coal 
capacity, 12 tons. 



THE LARGEST TROOPSHIP IN THE 
WORLD. 



The "Dufferin," the largest troopship in 
the world, was recently launched at Barrow, 
England. The vessel will accommodate 
1,520 persons and in equipment is equal to 
a first-class liner. Sanitary and ventilating 




'WHat the Real THin^ Actually I^ooks I^iKeV 



I take delight in showing some of the would- 
be big engine advocates what the real thing 
actually looks like." 

The bigness of the thing is better com- 
prehended in the driving wheels, which are 
7 feet 10 inches high, and the height to top 
of boiler, 15 feet 3 inches. To save height 
the stack is only 1 foot high, and the bell 
is hung- below the boiler. The main dimen- 
sions are: Cylinders, 26 x 30 in.; boiler, 
diameter smallest ring, 84 in.; firebox, 
length, 70 in.; firebox, width, 90 in.; flues, 
460; flues, length, 18 ft.; driving wheels, 
diameter, 94 in.; trailing wheels, diameter, 
52 in.; pony truck wheels, diameter, 33 in.; 
weight on driving wheels, 145,000 lbs.; 
weight, total engine, 225,000 lbs.; weight 
total engine and tender, 340,000 lbs.; height 
center boiler, 11 ft. 9 in.; height top boiler, 
15 ft 3 in.; height top stack, 16 ft. 3 in.; 



arrangements have been most carefully 
made and all that would tend toward the 
comfort and health of the soldiers has been 
provided, the vessel being model in this re- 
spect. 

The ship is of the spar deck type, length 
over all, 453 feet; breadth, 52 feet, 6 inches; 
moulded depth, 39 feet. It has four com- 
plete decks and a boat deck about half its 
length amidships. It can be made practi- 
cally unsinkable in a few seconds by closing 
the water-tight compartments into which it 
is divided under the main deck. These are 
controlled from the bridge. The propelling 
machinery, says the Marine Engineer, con- 
sists of two sets of inverted, vertical, direct- 
acting, triple expansion engines, each set 
having three cylinders, working on separate 
cranks, and capable of developing 9,400 
horsepower at 115 r. p. m. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



203 



TRAGIC FATE ENDS "FOOLKILLER 
NO. III." 



Nissen Crosses Lake Michigan in a Furious 

Storm at Night, but Finds Death 

on the Farther Shore. 




Peter Nissen has met the fate with which 
he has flirted for years; yet he should not 
be classed with the ordinary seelier after 
notoriety. The 
adventu r o u s 
blood of the 
old Norsemen 
coursed 
through his 
viens and im- 
pelled him to 
deeds which 
other men 
shuddered to 
even contem- 
plate. 

On Nissen's 
first voyage in 
"Foolkiller No. 
1" there was 
no wind an^ 
therefore it 

was only a short trip and uneventful. This 
craft was a mammoth canvas ball 22 feet in 
diameter and 32 feet long, inflated by "means 
of an air pump. A shaft extended through 
the center from end to end and from this 
suspended a swinging cradle in which Nis- 
sen sat or reclined. 

His expectation in event of a successful 
voyage across Lake Michigan was to con- 
struct a much larger ball, 75 feet in diam- 
eter and 115 feet long, which was to be 
taken to the extreme limit of northern 



Peter Missex^ 



travel, and then used in rolling to the North 
Pole. His theory was that the lightness of 
the craft when driven by the wind would 
cause it to go bounding over obstructions 
many feet high, precisely as a thistledown 
travels. 

Nissen, wlio was a frequent visitor at this 
oflBce, called the afternoon before his fatal 
trip, but it was characteristic of the mod- 
esty of the man that he made no mention 
of the coming trial. Ever since his remark- 
able trip through the rapids at Niagara he 
has been offered large sums from amuse- 
ment managers, but the idea was very re- 
pugnant to him, notwithstanding his need of 
money for experiments. He was a college 
graduate with honors. 

The ill-fated trip was made on November 
29, during a furious winter gale blowing 
from the west. The storm was so severe 
that steamers due to leave this port dared 
not venture out. He entered the ball about 
4 o'clock just as dusk came on. The open- 
ing was sealed to make it air tight, and at 
the word from within the ball was released 
and rolled rapidly down the sea wall and 
in a few minutes was well out at sea. Nis- 
sen carried provisions fbr two days, but re- 
moved his overcoat as he entered the ball. 
He declined assistance from a passing tug 
two miles out. At midnight the gale was 
blowing nearly 50 miles an hour and the 
cold was intense. 

Two days later the frozen body of Nissen 
and the remains of the ball were found toss- 
ing in the surf of the east shore 100 miles 
from Chicago. He had evidently made the 
crossing in safety, but the ball had failed to 
roll out of the water up on to the shore, and 
the intrepid inventor after cutting his way 
out of the balloon and in an exhausted con- 
dition had been unable to stand against the 
breakers, and so perished in the surf. 

To provide for the natural deflation of the 
ball through leakage, and also to supply 





fniiS picture Showa the Start of the Jaly Trip of Niaaen— Leaving Chicago Harbor — It waa in the Some Ball 

tbat Nigaen Loat Hia Ziifs 



204 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



fresh air to breathe after 15 hours' occupa- 
tion, an air pump was attached within the 
ball connected through a small hose to the 
outside. Something happened to the hose, 
for in his pocket was found a card on which 
were written the words "Air hose has bro- 
ken. N." 

It is believed the reason the ball failed 
to roll out of the lake onto land was on 
account of its being deflated to perhaps one- 
half its normal size. The funeral, in Chi- 
cago, was attended by 4,000 persons. 



DULUTH AERIAL FERRY. 



Only One in America— One of Five in the World- 
Suspended Ferry Carries Street Cars, 
Vehicles and Pedestrians. 



The great aerial ferry in Duluth is now 
in operation. Nearly a year has been spent 
in construction and erection. It is the only 
structure of its kind in America, and one of 
only five in the world. The others are at 
Newport, England; Rouen, France; Bizerte, 
Tunis, and at Nantes, France, over the Loire. 

The purpose of the aerial ferry is to af- 
ford nearly all the advantages of a bridge 



without any of its disadvantages to ship- 
ping. This ferry crosses the Duluth ship 
canal, where a center pier swing bridge 
would impede navigation. In the aerial 
ferry a huge steel trussed superstructure 
spans the channel, the distance between the 
towers being 393 feet. Tracks are laid on 
the bridge span on which run trucks from 
which depend lV2-inch steel cables, which 
in turn suspend the car or ferry. The dis- 
tance from water line to the lower beam 
of the span is 185 feet, which enables ves- 
sels to pass below with clearance for their 
main masts. The only false Avork used is 
the support under the first section of the 
towers, 

The car or ferry is moved from tower to 
tower by electric motors in the trucks run- 
ning on the overhead tracks, but controlled 
by an operator on the ferry below. The 
ferry swings clear of the water and a few 
feet above, and the floor is on a level with 
the city streets. Space is provided for 
several wagons or vehicles, or one double- 
truck street car, and cabins at each side are 
fitted with seats for passengers. The ferry 
car will carry 300 persons. The ferry 
is at all times under the control of the ope- 
rator by means of a controller similar to 
that used on street cars. The trip is made 
at a speed of about four miles an hour, and 
a load up to 50 tons can be carried. The 
bridge is built to withstand a wind velocity 
of 70 miles an hour, and cost $100,000. 




Sbips Pass Vnder tbe Ferry "Witbout Delay 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



20' 



MEASURED SERVICE METERS FOR TELE 
PHONE PATRONS. 



Individual measured- service meters for 
teleplione users are becoming quite popular 
tlie meter being always an arbiter of peace, 
and settling all disputes in a manner satis- 
factory to both parties. Our illustration 
shows the simple apparatus which is 
placed in the subscriber's station and which 
registers each call as it is made. The de- 
vice works as follows: 

When a connection is made, the sub- 
scriber calling pulls a lever which throws a 
buzz over the wire and notifies the operator 
of the call. The call is also shown on the 
face of the meter. 

The record of the meter is read at the 
end of a stated period. To do this the cen- 
tral office places its machine in connection 
with the subscriber's meter and the sub- 
scriber is called and asked to turn a crank. 
This operation takes a statement of the 




THe Patron's Instrument 

number of calls since last reading on a tape 
by Morse code at the central office. The 
whole apparatus is completely under con- 
trol of the telephone company and can be 
attached without extra wiring. The main- 
tenance cost, says the Western Electrician, 
is very slight and one portable statement- 
taker will do the work for an entire ex- 
change. 



UNSINKABLE LIFE-BOATS. 



An unsinkable life-boat, unsinkable even 
though seriously damaged, is the product 
of a Danish inventor, and several important 
features are claimed for the new craft. 

This life-boat consists of a boat-shaped 
pontoon of wood or iron, strongly con- 
structed, and filled with kapok, a product 
of plants growing in Java and Sumatra, 
said to combine the greatest floating capac- 
ity with the least weight and able to sus- 
tain thirty-five times its weight in water. 



The kapok is contained in water-tight cush- 
ions which in turn are placed in water-tight 
compartments. Upon this bouyant layer is 
mounted a superstructure which can be 
folded down or erected. This is surrounded 
by a fender filled with kapok in water- 
tight cushions. In extending the boat, cross 




VnsinHable I^ifeboat Extended for 
Use 

beams are lifted in and the oars are re- 
leased, an oval-shaped thwart with cross- 
thwarts slides into position, and stanchions 
and other parts drop into their places auto- 
matically, making a reliable boat contain- 
ing bread and water-tanks. 

Exhaustive tests have been made of the 
Englehardt unsinkable life-boat, as it is 
called, and it has stood successfully every 
one. It is compact for carrying on 
vessels, where space occupied is an import- 
ant consideration, and if a ship were to 
sink suddenly these boats would only need 
be cut from their lashings and would be 




The Boat Folded. 

found floating after such disaster, still fit 
for use and easily accessible by those in 
danger of perishing. The boats can, more- 
over, be readily transported to any part of 
a ship and launched without davits. 

The ordinary lifeboats take up so much 
deck space that it is impossible to carry 
enough for passengers and crew, and as a 
consequence the boats are apt to be over- 
crowded and swamped. 



e06 



E N C Y C T. O P E D I A 



CONSTRUCTING A TALL STEEL SMOKE- STEEL TIRES AND SPRING WHEELS FOR 
STACK. AUTOMOBILES. 



In our illustration is shown an exciting 
stage in the construction of a tall steel stack 
—the erection of the last section. This 




The Critical Moment. 

stack is on the power house of the Fond du 
lac-Oshkosh Interurban Railway and is 140 
feet high and eight feet in diameter. The 
brick stack near it is 120 feet high and seven 
feet in diameter. 



The solution of punctured rubber auto- 
mobile tires is announced by an invention 
which replaces rubber tires with steel, and 
provides the same resiliency by means of 
coil springs at the hub. 

The hubs of the new wheels are made of 
cast steel, with hickory spokes and white 
oak felloes. The inner hub has a wide pro- 
jecting flange whicli runs into the outer hub 
and is held in place by a screwed steel ring, 
this makes a running fit to the metal flange 
and prevents all side thrust. Fastened to 
the outer hub are six square bolts the 
threaded ends of which, with their nuts, hold 
steel saddles in position. On the outer side 
of the spokes these saddles carry two spiral 
springs whose opposite ends are fastened 
to the inner hub. The springs are held at 
both ends by lugs and if a spring breaks 
the nuts may be taken off and the spring 
readily replaced, the cost of a new spring 
being about 15 cents. Steel tires are very 
durable and economical, but make consider- 
able noise. Wheels may be equipped in- 
stead with channel iron in which is laid 
%-inch hj'draulie packing. Such a tire is 




Hub Sprinifs Replacin£f R.ubl>er 
Tires. 

noiseless, has great adhesion and the cost 
is^ less than that of solid rubber. The firm 
making these wheels guarantees them to be 
as resilient as any wheel with a pneumatic 
tire. If the new wheels stand the test of 
time and use, automobiling will be relieved 
of a few of its difficulties. 



The number of telegrams sent daily 
throughout the world reaches the enor- 
mous total of 14,000,000, not including 36,- 
000 cable messages, according to George 
Johnson, official Canadian statistician. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



207 



PORTABLE WATER DISTILLING PLANTS. 



The most important requirement for pre- 
serving the health of the human body is a 
sufficient supply of pure water for drinking 
and cooking purposes. Especially is this 
true in arid regions or in low swamp coun- 
try where one is apt to drink death with a 
cup of such water as is obtainable there. 
Often in these places large gangs of men 
are employed, the labor of every one of 
whom is indispensable. This is the field 
into which the invention shown in our illus- 
tration will enter and be found most wel- 
come. 



discharged from the separator of the first 
vessel into tubes of the second, owing to the 
difference in pressure in the two vessels or 
effects. The steam from this last effect, 
along with the drip-water from the second 
shell, passes direct to the condenser, and is 
discharged as pure distilled water. If the 
local water is unfit for boiler feed purposes 
the drip-water — or "boiler steam condensed" 
— from the first shell after passing through 
the feed heater, discharges into the boiler- 
feed tank, and is pumped back into the 
boiler. If fit for boiler-feed purposes the 
drip from the first shell is used for heating 
in the second shell and goes to further in- 




Prodtxces 65 Gallons of Pure Distilled VTater Per Hour 



This plant will convert undriukable brine 
or any other impure water into the health- 
giving fluid at a rate of 65 gallons pure 
product per hour, not including the con- 
densed "boiler steam" or "drip" from first 
shell. 

The apparatus while working requires 
very little attention. The process is much 
as follows: 

The impure feed- water (drawn from the 
condensed overflow) is pumped through a 
feed-heater, and is heated by the drip-water 
from shell of first vessel, on its way to the 
latter, where it passes through a series of 
tubes exposed on the outside to steam from 
the boiler. The steam rising from the im- 
pure water passes from the separator to the 
second shell where it heats the impure wa- 
ter contained in the tubes of the second ves- 
sel—this impure water being continuously 



crease the quantity of distilled water. 

The steam boiler, which is of the port- 
able, "loco-tubular" type, is suitable for a 
working pressure of 80 to 100 pounds per 
square inch. The fire box is extra large, 
suitable for burning wood, which would 
be, in many localities, the only fuel avail- 
able, or at any rate, the most convenient 
fuel. 

This type of distiller is made in three 
sizes— 28, 47 and 65 gallons of pure dis- 
tilled water per hour. It is securely 
mounted on a strong carriage, constructed 
of light steel framing and suitable for an- 
imal haulage. Page's Weekly, London, says 
the type was especially designed for the 
use of prospecting and exploring parties, 
temporary hospitals, and for visiting and 
supplying fresh water to small mining sta- 
tions. 



208 



ENCYCT. OPEDTA 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 209 

Wonderful Instrument WHicH Predicts Tides 



Built by tKe Government, It Performs Calculations of the 
Most Intricate Nature '^^itK A.ccuracy and DespatcK 



The Secretary of the Navy desires to or- 
der a battleship into a certain harbor on our 
coast, at a particular hour some day next 
week. The harbor is entered only by cross- 
ing a bar at its mouth where the water is 
none too deep. He wants to know how 
many fathoms of water will be on that bar 
at the time the ship will cross it. 
There is a machine that can tell him in a 
feAv minutes, and whose calculations are 
absolutely accurate. 

There is being built in the instrument 
shop of the Coast and Geodetic Survey 
Building in Washington a most intricate and 
wonderful machine, something that will ap- 
poach "thinking mechanism" nearer than 
any other apparatus owned by the Govern- 
meat. This wonder is a tide-predicting ma- 
chine, and is a great improvement — made by 
Mr. E. G. Fischer, chief of the instrument 
division of the survey— on the original one 
now in use for this purpose. It already dis- 
plays a wilderness of wheels, slides, cranks, 
pins, chains, etc.; is composed of brass (the 
framework), and weighs several hundred 
pounds. Before saying more about this it 
is best to tell something about tides. 

In forecasting tides it is necessary first 
to gather data upon which to work. This 
is done by observations at tidal stations on 
coast, lake, river and other shores. By 
long series of observations of rise and fall 
of tides, weather conditions and laud con- 
figurations, the action of the tides is re- 
solved into fairly constant factors for each 
tidal station. Long series of such observa- 
tions are necessary because the tides are 
vei'y complex phenomena, being modified by 
all influences acting upon the earth from 
without, as well as by those arising upon 
the earth itself (such as winds, earth- 
quakes and variations of the atmospheric 
pressui'e), by irregalarities in the coast 
line, by the eccentric distribution of the 
land masses, and by the varying depth of 
the sea. With this data taken in connec- 
tion with astronomical conditions— particu- 
larly of the sun and moon— it is possible to 
predict the future condition of the tides. 

But this involves a tedious process in 
hand-work mathematical calculations, 
which, by the elimination of certain factors 
governing tides and adoption of other (con- 
stant) ones, can be avoided, when a tide- 
predicting machine is employed. The ma- 



chine used by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic 
Survey has nineteen dials on its back, 
which have to do with as many tidal fac- 
tors; the latter are indicated on the dials by 
means of setting pointers, and when an at- 
tached crank handle is turned, indicators on 
five dials on the front of the machine point 
out the information desired. Of course, the 
machine is set for each tidal station, and 
gives high and low water time, height and 
depth of tides, etc., for dates far ahead. 

All this is done by the many wheels and 
shafts of the machine operated by a steel 
chain that runs upon the pulley at the end 
of each shaft, also operating simultaneously 
the pointer-shafts of the front dials. This 
machine does the work of forty computers. 
It costs $3,500. 

The new tide-predicting machine will be 
far superior to the one described. It will 
have to do with thirty-nine factors of a tide 
instead of nineteen, giving besides time of 
high and low tides and their depth and 
height, the state of the tide at any hour. In 
addition to increased advantage in the 
sight-reading dials the new machine will 
plot the tidal curves on paper, and in time 
it is possible that added mechanism will au- 
tomatically turn out printed tidal informa- 
tion. As above mentioned the tide-predict- 
ing machine is operated by means of a 
cranlc- hand-power. The new machine 
will be run by clock-work. The chain and 
pulley feature will be much the same in 
both the mechanical predictors. 

It is rather a wonderful machine which 
takes facts and figures on its back and dis- 
plays the solved problems on its front faces. 
The new mechanical wonder will do more. 
It will accomplish several things at one 
time— carry on two summations— one of 
which, at any instant, will denote the height 
of the tide or surface of the water, while 
the other will determine the time of high 
or low water and trace tidal curves. In 
other words, by looking at the face of the 
machine at any particular time the true 
height of the tide can be read off at once 
and times of high and low water will be 
given as they occur. The tracing of the 
tidal curves while the predictions are going 
on will be a valuable feature of the ma- 
chine's work, for if any peculiarities or un- 
certainties are involved in the tide the rec- 
ord can be cousulted. 



210 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Ore Unloaded Automatically 



tug Clam-SHell BucKets Unload Ten Tons at a Single 

Operation—MaKe Big Reduction in Cost of 

Handling Ore 




Clasn«SHell Bucket Open 

A few years ago had that mon- 
strous fresh-water vessel, the "Au- 
gustus B. Wolvin," been in exist- 
ence and landed at any lake port 
with a full cargo of bulk material, 
it would have required a period of 
time to unload the vessel entirely 
disproportionate to the admirable 
mechanical equipment of that Great 
Lakes' pride. For the cubical ca- 
pacity of the "A. B. Wolvin" is 
about 500,000 cubic feet, equal to 
401,000 bushels of grain or 12,500 
tons of coal. 

The "A. B. Wolvin" is almost au- 
tomatic in every feature and yet 
the ponderous new machine which 
unloaded her cargo at Conneaut, 
Ohio, a short time ago is even more 
wonderful than the new ship. From 
the moment at which the steel plate 
sliding hatch covers, operated by 
steam engines and shafting, with 
which the big vessel is fitted, slid back so 
that the queer clam-shell bucket of the auto- 
matic ore unloader might be lowered into 
the hold, until the moment when the last 
ton of a cargo of 7,257 gross tons of iron 
ore was transferred to the railroad cars on 
shore ready to be carried to the iron-making 



plants of Pennsylvania, was ex- 
actly four and one-half hours— a 
rate of 1,613 tons unloaded per 
hour. 

The "A. B. Wolvin" is, however, 
especially adapted in construction 
to the use of the ore unloader, and 
such speedy handling as that men- 
tioned could hardly be maintained 
with a vessel of different construc- 
tion. The hold of this vessel is 
hopper-shaped, that is, with slant- 
ing sides, so that the ore to the 
last ton by the force of gravity is 
always so disposed within the hold 
that the clam-shell buckets can 
readily handle it. 

For many years inventors, en- 
gineers and .experts strove to de- 
vise a means by which ore which 
was conveyed from the mines and 
loaded on the vessel in a minimum 




Clam-SHell BucKet Closed 

of time could be unloaded in a proportionate 
time. The ore unloader which was finally 
successful was the invention of Mr. George 
H. Hulett, and while others had previously 
worked along the same lines as those he 
persisted in, they finally abandoned the idea 
which he brought to a triumphant success. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



211 




TKe Bucket L>e^ ivitH Bucket Open and Ready to be Ivowered into 

Vessel's Hold 




Howr tKe Bucket is L>OMrered into tHe Hold— SHowin^ tbe Operation ox 

tbe ^Valkin^-Beam 



212 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



The first ore unloader of this kind was 
installed on the docks of the United States 
Steel Corporation at Conneaut, Ohio. A foun- 
dation trestle, which is mounted upon 
wheels, may be moved bodily along the 
dock to any point required. Its forward 
end travels on rails which are at the 
water's edge of the dock. A heavy walk- 
ing-beam supported on a movable trolley 
moves backward and fei'ward on the par- 
allel girders of this foundation span and 
at right angles to the dock. To the end of 
this walking-beam, which is designed to 
extend over the vessel to be unloaded, is 
a depending leg to which is attaclied the 
clam-shell bucket which unloads the ore, 
and which is always kept in a vertical posi- 
tion by the parallel motion. 

According as tlie back end of tliis walk- 




THe ClanfShell BucKet Scooping its 

Lroad in tHe Hold of tHe "A.u^ustus 

B. 'W^olviii**— SHoAvingf Hopper- 

SHaped Hold 

ing-beam is pulled down or released, so is 
the front end raised or lowered, thus raising 
and lowering the bucket-leg in and out of 
the hatches of the vessel. The bucket-leg 
can, of course, be lowered into any hatch 
of the vessel and tlie bucket can be rotated 
in a complete circle. The operator who con- 
trols all the operations of the bucket is sta- 
tioned in the mast or leg just over the big 
clam-shell. 

The bucket is carried bacli and forth, 
along the girders of the foundation, out 
over the boat for a load, or baclv again to 
deposit it in the empty cars. Large hy- 
draulic cylinders carrying 1,000 pounds 
water pressure perform all the operations 
of the macliine, except the travel along the 
dock. The clam-shell bucket has a spread 
of 18 feet and usually descends into the 
hold of the vessel half-closed, though in 



some special cases it is entered open. When 
spread out below deck its big jaws have a 
scope one would hardly expect, reaching 
from the center of one hatch to the center 
of the other. It can be rotated within the 
hold, so that practically all the material to 
be unloaded is within its reach. 

Suppose a vessel were, in port to be un- 
loaded, the big machine is first moved oppo- 
site a hatch and the walking-beam and trol- 
ley are run forward so that they reach out 
over the boat. By slacking off the hoist 
cables at the rear end of the wallving-beara 
the bucket is lowered until it comes in con- 
tact with the ore. After the bucket has 
secured its load it is then closed by hy- 
draulic power, not only liaving bored its 
way into the ore but closing while em- 
bedded in it. The back end of the walking- 
beam is then pulled down again, thus lifting 
the front end with its load. The trolley 
runs back, carrying the huge beam up the 
dock to the waiting cars, into which the ore 
is discharged, or the ore may be dumped on 
stock piles at the dock. 

All these operations have been under the 
direct control of the man in the mast, where 
are grouped all the operating levers. The 
bucket carries abovit 10 tons of ore at each 
grab, and under the least favorable condi- 
tions the machine can unload 2,000 tons per 
day. 

The macliine, which is a heavy steel 
structure, the principal members being 
of plat and girder construction, stands 
55 feet in height and weighs 400 tons. It 
is moved along the dock from hatch to 
hatch of a vessel, or from vessel to vessel 
by a pair of engines which are geared to 
the wheels on each main leg of the struct- 
ure. It greatly decreases the cost of hand- 
ling ore, the cost being about nine-tenths 
less than with hand labor. 

•*•*- 

BELGIAN GOVERNMENT BUILDS TUR- 
BINE STEAMER FOR MAIL SERVICE. 



The Belgian government is building a tur- 
bine steamer for the Dover-Ostend mail 
service. The vessel is designed for a speed 
of 23 knots and will be driven by three 
Parsons turbines developing 12,000 horse- 
power. The Marconi system of wireless 
telegraphy will be installed and will be at 
the service of the traveling public as well 
as for official use. The dimensions of the 
vessel are: Length over all, 357 feet; 
length between perpendiculars, 344 feet; 
beam, 40 feet; depth from promenade deck 
to keel, 2314 feet; draught, 9% feet. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 213 

Under- Water Armor for BattlesHips 



Protection Against Submarine AttacRs A Momentous Problem 



Submarine weapons of destruction to- 
gether with accurate long-range gunfire 
are rapidly dispelling the fond conviction 
that battleships need no protection below 
the waterline, the water itself being their 
best safeguard. In the present war be- 
tween Russia and Japan it has been ob- 
served with a marked uneasiness that the 
Japanese seriously injured several of the 
Russian vessels at or below the waterline 
in long-range firing. The fact is signifi- 
cant. In the great game of nations it is 
impossible that warships can long retain a 
single A'ulnerable point with any degree of 
safety. Someone will find a means of 
striking at that spot and striking hard. Al- 
ready range-finders of a reliable character 
are making gunfire effective just below 
the. armor plating. 

There are many instances where the un- 
armored bottom of tlie vessel may be ex- 
posed. A vessel having six feet of armor 
belt extending below the water would be 
exposed at the unarmored portion of the 
bottom by a very small angle of inclina- 
tion in still water, if her stores, ammuni- 
tion or coals were expended. Rolling and 
pitching or even a seaway of moderate 
rise and fall may serve to expose her. Sir 
William White in the Naval Annual de- 
clares that it would be folly to regard the 
unarmored portions of the bottoms of ships 
as safe from all attack of gunfire. If it is 
folly now when there is no gun in exist- 
ence which can send a projectile any dis- 
tance under water before it ricochets and 
goes bounding along the surface with its 
force expended, how much will that dan- 
ger be increased if ever the need expressed 
not long since by a noted admiral be filled: 
"We want howitzers firing shell at an ele- 
vated trajectory, Avhich will explode at a 
given depth beneath the water." 

The dangers from gunfire below water- 
line are, of course, slight when compared 
with the dangers from under-water at- 
tacks by torpedoes, and it is protection of 
the submerged parts of the vessel from 
these attacks that is now claiming the most 
serious attention. 

Gunfire is less effective against sub- 
marines than it is against battleships 
below waterline. It may carry away the 
submarine's periscope so that observations 



can no longer be made from the little 
craft, but it cannot damage the boat's 
power of maneuvering under water. In an 
essay Commander Murray F. Seuter of 
the English navy points out just what war 
vessels have to fear from under-water de- 
structive forces and relates some of the 
methods of protecting the vessel from these 
forces. 




BattlesHip in Dry DocK, SHoivin^ 
Hull 

The defects of present submarines are 
low speed, small radius of action, limited 
range of vision and enervating effect on 
crews, but with all these defects they are 
the greatest menace to the war vessel. 
"When the submarine must come to the sur- 
face to take bearings, rapid gunfire from a 
battleship would soon destroy it, but the 
submarines now in use do not come to the 
surface. The torpedo boat destroyer is at a 
disadvantage against the submarine because 
it offers a large target both to under-water 
and surface vessels and is soon put out of 
action by gunfire and the crew are unpro- 
tected The method of dealing with the 
submarine most commonly used is to at- 
tach a spar of gun-cotton charge to the 
quarter of a destroyer, which chases the 



214 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Submarine Boats* the Battleship's Greatest Foest Maneuvering Before 
the Kin^ at Portsmouth, £n^land 



submarine as soon as it is sighted. The 
spar is swung out and when over the sub- 
marine it is detonated. This method is only 
effectual when the submarine is seen. En- 
tanglements by nets or hawsers; injury from 
a gun-cotton charge; exhaustion of electric 
batteries; defects to internal mechanism; 
defects to external gear of diving rudders; 
bad fumes, producing the collapse of the 
crcAv; or a porpoise-like rise and dive to 
obtain bearings when the periscope has been 
shot away, these are named as causes for 
the submarine rising to the surface where 
it is possible to injure her. 

Protection against torpedo attack has be- 
come an important consideration in the 
construction of the war vessel. Numerous 
methods have been tried to render the ves- 
sel proof against a torpedo explosion sev- 
eral feet below the waterline. The British 
navy now has a 3,000-yard torpedo; the 
Austrian Government have been experi- 
menting with one having a 3,800-yard 
range. The torpedo has become the most 
deadly weapon of warfare. The strongest 
searchlights have a range of about 2,000 
yards; a destroyer 1,800 or even 1,000 yards 
outside this range has the best of the 
chances for discharging its torpedo. Com- 
mander Seuter declares that "rigid armor 



plates, with many butting joints and armor 
bolts, are no defense against the shattering 
effect of a torpedo." Wing bulkheads, that 
is, armored inner bottoms fitted a few 
feet inside the outer skins, which are of 
thin steel plating, have been tried on some 
of the modern war vessels , notably the 
"Cesarevitch," seriously damaged in a Jap- 
anese attack on Port Arthur, but this pro- 
tection is decried because of the danger of 
water-logging of spaces outside the armor 
protection, but inside the ship, resulting in 
serious heeling of the vessel, or, possibly, 
in absolute instability. 

Recently the old British battleship "Belle- 
isle" was sunk in Portsmouth harbor by the 
explosion of a torpedo under her hull, and 
so disastrous was the effect of the explosion 
that it took a month to get the vessel 
afloat again, although she was only in shal- 
low water. The object of the torpedo ex- 
periment was to ascertain whether cellulose 
material made of corn pith could be relied 
upon to prevent the inrush of water when a 
ship had a big hole knocked in her bottom. 
Accordingly on "Belleisle's" hull, ten feet be- 
low waterline, a section had been constructed 
representing the double bottom of a modern 
battleship, and this was packed with cellu- 
lose. The "Belleisle" was towed to Farehani 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



215 



creek, in Portsmouth harbor, and a torpedo 
warhead charged with guncotton exploded 
under the false bottom by oflBcers of his 
majesty's ship "Vernon" at the Portsmouth 
torpedo school. Not only was the false bot- 
tom blown to pieces and the cellulose sent 
high up into the ^ir with the volume of 
water that followed the explosion, but a big 
hole was also made in the ship's bottom. The 
Liverpool Salvage Company undertook to 
raise her, but the task has been a diflBcult 
one, owing to the soft nature of the bottom. 
As fast as the mud was cleared away to 
enable the divers to work up the rent, the 
next tide would bring more mud back. At 
length a cofferdam was constructed inside 
the ship, and eight pumps, each capable of 
discharging great volumes of water, Avere 
kept at work, with the result that the old 
battleship was floated and placed in dry dock. 
It was evident that she had sustained serious 
damage, for the vessel had a big list to port 
as she was being towed across the. harbor, 
and two pumps were discharging an immense 
volume of water out of her. ^/\ hen the dock 
had been cleai'ed of water the damaged part 
of the "Belleisle's" hull was carefully covered 
up with canvas, so as to prevent unauthor- 
ized persons from becoming acquainted with 
the extent of her injuries. 

Water or compressed air protection are 
recommended by Commander Sueter as the 
best agents for minimizing the effects of an 
explosion. He says: 

"All compartments should be flooded, and 
subjected to a severer water pressure test 
before launching than that now customary. 
Each compartment should be tested like a 
tank to resist a water pressure varying 
from 40 pounds to 50 pounds on the square 
inch, without undue weeping of rivets. If 
the design allowed for spaces over the vital 
parts being filled with water or compressed 
air when in the vicinity of a coast where 
danger from submarines or torpedo-boats 
may be expected, the ship would then suf- 
fer the minimum damage by a successful 
torpedo attack. Ordinarily the compart- 
ments would be left empty. The ship would 
then have a higher freeboard and a higher 
gun platform for fighting in the open sea. 
A saving of weight might be obtained by 
doing away with ammunition passages, 
water-tight doors and fittings, substituting 
a tank system of cellular compartments, any 
one of which could be flooded easily and 
rapidly, or filled with compressed air by air 
compressors. 

"The interior of a ship having such a tank 
system should be built in the form of an 



internal ship, quite 10 to 15 feet from 
the outer skin, so that the inner skin could 
not more than slightly be pierced by an ex- 
plosion. The amount of the water cushion 
or compressed air protection round the 
sides of a ship would, of course, have to 
be calculated so as to allow of a maximum 
space outside the engines and magazine. 

"Battleships and cruisers should be mod- 
ified and split up into cellular compart- 
ments. The center of gravity of each cellular 
space can be calculated from the designs, 
and if several compartments on one side of 




Hole Made at Waterline by a 
Japai\ese SHell 

the ship were injured and filled with watei-, 
their opposite compensating compartments 
would be brought into use, and there would 
still be an ample margin of buoyancy. If 
large emergency Kingston doors were fit- 
ted so that abundant volumes of water 
could at once be let into special compart- 
ments to compensate, however large an in- 
jury were made, an even keel could be 
kept if the compensating compartments 
were at once flooded. 

"No communication should be allowed 
from one compartment to another, except 
through manholes (not doors), which can 
be closed with great rapidity from below 
and on deck. If doors cannot be eliminated 
there should be as few as possible, and 
nearly all communication should be from 
the upper deck, for every door and hole in 
a water-tight bulkhead is a grave weak- 
ness. Fire mains, electric wires and steam 
pipes are indiscriminately run through the 



216 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




DEMAND FOR EXPERT MINING 
ENGINEERS. 



XHe Formidable Ram-Stem 

bulkheads, and are often not quite water- 
tight. All barbettes and similar parts of 
tlie ship sliould be made more water-tight 
than at present." 

It is probable that in the future the ram- 
stem in battleships will be abolished. Naval 
authorities argue that were one of our 
high-speed modern war vessels, while go- 
ing at a good rate, to ram another ship with 
intent to sink it, the attacking vessel would 
herself suffer terrible damage; that guns 
would be dismounted, rivets loosened and 
boilers would burst. In short, the vessel 
would be totally disabled. 

The ram was first fitted to vessels of the 
"Hotspur" class, but since that time, there 
have been such rapid changes both in speed 
of warships and in projectiles that the con- 
ditions are now entirely different. 



BIG RAILWAY CAR-BUILDING PLANT FOR 
MONTREAL. 



Montreal is to have a new car plant rep- 
resenting $3,000,000 capital and with a 
capacity for turning out 25 wooden cars, 15 
steel cars and 15 passenger coaches a day. 
The works will also have a capacity for 
steel underframes for 25 cars a day and 30 
or 40 steel-truck frames. From 1,500 to 
2,000 men will be employed, with a pay roll 
of from $75,000 to $125,000 per month, and 
between 500 and 600 tons of material will 
be handled per day. 



Mining engineering offers an attractive 
field to the young engineer, not only in op- 
portunities to rise in his profession, but in 
the financial returns. At the annual meet- 
ing of the South Staffordshire (England) 
Institute of Mining Engineers, the president, 
Prof. Redmayne, pronounced the problem of 
deep mining, one which will demand the 
increasing attention of the profession. He 
stated that tapered ropes are not neces- 
sary down to 5,000 feet; that compressed 
air can be vised where electric coal cutters 
are dangerous, but the compressors may 
be operated by electric motors. That the 
difficult problems in deep mining are heat, 
ventilation and crush due to pressure. He 
said: 

"I know of no other calling, unless it be 
that of a medical practitioner, which makes 
so many and great demands upon one's in- 
telligence, physical endurance, and moral 
strength, as that of mining engineer; foi*, 
besides being an all-round miner, he has to 
have more than an elementary acquaint- 
ance of the allied sciences and their appli- 
cations, and being in daily contact with 
large bodies of workmen, has to learn to 
feel for them while working with them. 
Indeed, he has to be possessed in no small 
degree of that estimable quality which we 
name tactfulness; and few men have to be 
more resourceful in dangerous emergen- 
cies." 

♦ » » 

ELECTRIC RAILWAY POWER FROM GAS 

ENGINES. 



A somewhat unique departure from es- 
tablished methods in electric traction has 
recently been undertaken at Warren, Pa. 
The Warren & Jamestown Street. Railway 
Company is eqiiipping an alternating cur- 
rent single-phase electric railway system to 
operate between Warren, Pa., and James- 
town, N. Y., for which power will be sup- 
plied by gas engines operating upon na- 
tural gas. The equipment now being 
constructed will include two gas engines of 
500-horsepower each, direct connected to 
two 260 k. w. generators. Five transformer 
substations will receive the high tension 
current from the transmission line and re- 
duce the voltage for use in single-phase 
motors. The company has operated a por- 
tion of its lines for three j'ears with current 
generated by a gas engine. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



217 



AUTOMATIC DANGER SIGNAL FOR COMBINED MUFFLER AND WHISTLE FOR 
BROKEN BRIDGES. GAS ENGINES. 



An automatic signal for broken bridges, 
which will display the danger sign at both 
sides of the structure and far enough away 




Danger Signal for Broken Bridges. 

to enable even the fastest trains to stop iu 
time is suggested in the Locomotive En- 
gineer. The method proposed is a system 
of electric wires extending along all the 
principal girders and beams of the entire 
structure. If any one of these is harmed 
the wires would break and instantly cause 
electric danger signals to show at what- 
ever distance and at such points as de- 
sired. 



HEAT FROM 



FIREPLACE 
LIGHT. 



WITHOUT 



To warm a room from a fireplace and at 
the same time ■ keep the room dark, have 
a tinner construct a black sheet-iron box or 
screen, as shown in the cut. The bottom 




Heat From a Fireplace Without Light. 

and side of the box next the fire should be 
left out. Punch holes around the bottom 
to admit air to the fire. Nearly as much 
heat will result, and the smoke and light of 
the fire will be shut in. 



A combined muffler and whistle for gas 
engines is being placed on the market. The 
head is not rigidly secured to the body, but 
is held in place by a stiff coiled spring. 
If an explosion occurs iu the muffler the 
head will be forced out of place sufficiently 
to permit the excess pressure to escape 
without doing any damage, and will reseat 
itself. A chime whistle is placed in the 
head and sounded by the pressure of the 




Combined Muffler and Whistle for Gas Engines. 

exhaust, and by turning the head on its 
axis a sort of butterfly valve cut-out is 
opened. The device can easily be attached 
by anyone familiar with the use of gasoline 
motors. 



ELECTRIC MAIL WAGONS IN PARIS. 



Many of the mail wagons in Paris are 
now electric-propelled vehicles, weighing 
4,200 pounds, and carry a load of 1,100 
pounds of mail. Storage batteries weighing 







Electric Cars in Postal Service. 

1,320 pounds furnish current sufficient to last 
for a 37-mile trip. The Motor Age says the 
new wagons carry twice as much mail as 
the former horse-drawn vehicles and travel 
much faster. 



218 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




HOW TO PRODUCE COLORED PHOTO- 
GRAPHS OF FERN LEAVES. 



A correspondent in the Photo Beacon 
gives the following details of how to ar- 
range leaves and produce pictures of 
Nature's coloring; From my collection of 
leaves, I select those combining beauty of 
form with transparency, and arrange them 
in designs according to taste, fixing them 
with gum on very thin paper. When dry, 
I wash off with a small brush and cold 
water any gum that may appear on the 
surface. To give the paper- a rich appear- 
ance and make it transparent, I coat the 
back of the design with a solution— castor 
oil, methylated spirit and sulphuric ether, 
in equal proportions. I then press the de- 
sign between two pieces of blotting-paper. 
When thoroughly dry, 1 place it in a photo- 
graphic printing frame (to which glass is 
fitted), with the leaves uppermost. On the 
leaves, I place a sheet of printing-out 
paper, with, of course, the sensitized side to 
the leaves, close the frame and expose to 
the light. 

Leaves take two or three days to print 
unless the sun is strong. They should re- 
main apparently overprinted. When I think 
the photograph of the design is ready, I take 
it out of the frame and put it in a bath of 
hypo for 10 or 15 minutes. This bath soon 
disposes of the overprinting to which I 
have referred. No toning is necessary, but 
after the hypo bath the photograph must be 
well washed in cold, running water for at 
least an hour. No camera is required. The 
first photo produced will be a negative. A 
positive may be had by using the negative 
in exactly the same way as the design was 

used. 

<» « » 

HOW TO MEND CRACKED NEGATIVES. 



Cracks in negatives, says a writer in 
Der Amateur Photograph, in which the film 
has not been damaged, need not be re- 
paired by floating off the film, but can be 
mended as follows: Over the glass side 
of the negative a mixture of one part of 
turpentine and one part of Canada balsam 
is poured so that it will penetrate into the 
crack. The surplus is removed by a rag 
dipped in benzine. In copying, the crack, 
it is said, will be absolutely Invisible. The 
difficulty of handling such a negative may 
be overcome by binding it to another plate 
in lantern slide fashion. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



219 



Mitcliellitey tHe Ne^r Smokeless Explosive. 

Six Times as Strong as Dynamite, but Blasts Otxt RocK in Any 

Desired SHape—Safe to Handle— Freezes at 45° Belovr 

Zero— Produces No Gas. 



Experiments made recently with a new 
explosive known as "Mitehellite" indicate 
tlie discovery of a substance wliich is liliely 
to revolutionize one of the most important 
branches of mechanics. The tests were 
made on November 24th and 25th at the Jol- 
iet quarries of the Western Stone company, 
under the auspices of the directors of a 
powder company, the owner of the new ex- 
plosive, and the expert employed for such 
tests by the stone company. Results of the 
tests showed some interesting features con- 
nected with "Mitchellite." 

A number of blasts were made with dif- 
ferent sized charges of the new material 
and it was found to be possible to loosen 
tlie stone in any desired size of blocks ac- 
cording to the number and position of the 
holes drilled in the stone, the size and char- 
acter of the cutting being completely con- 
trolled by the explosion according to the 
desire of the experimenters. This is said 
to be impossible with any other explosive 
hitherto invented. A tree three feet in di- 
ameter was blown out of the ground by the 
explosion of one half pound of the sub- 
stance, leaving a hole twenty feet deep and 
twelve feet across where the tree had stood. 

The explosion of "Mitchellite" produces no 
generation of noxious gases whatever and 
operators are thus enabled to enter mines 
or tunnels immediately after a blast has 
been fired. In using any otlier kind of ex« 
plosive in a confined space it is found nec- 
essary to suspend operations after a blast 
for from twenty-five to thirty minutes in 
order to give the atmosphere a chance to 
clear. 

Used in cartridges "Mitchellite" shows a 
maximum of penetrative power Avith a min- 
imum of recoil. A steel bullet fired out of 
a rifle by means of the substance penetrated 
a steel rail one half inch in diameter; an- 
other was forced entirely through a tree 
three feet thick and eighteen inches into 
another placed next to it. 

The new explosive resembles coral in ap- 
pearance, being white and pink in color. 
It is considerably lighter than dynamite. 
In the crude state it appears in lumps but 
in use it is in granulated form somewhat 
coarser than granulated sugar. It can be 
fired only by an electric spark with a per- 



cussion cap and is thus perfectly safe to 
handle. When ignited it burns slowly like 
red fire. It freezes at a temperature of 45 
degrees below zero Fahrenheit. (Dynamite 
and nitro glycerine freeze at 40 degrees 
above zero Fahrenheit.) Its use, therefore, 
obviates the neces.sity and danger of thaw- 
ing out the explosive in case of freezing. 
It can be exploded in water as well as dry. 




Holes in 1>2 incH Steel Plate, made 
by Bullets Fired by "Mitcbellite" 

One half pound of the substance Avas found 
to do the work of three pounds of dynamite, 
showing that it is six times as strong as 
the latter explosive. 

Owing to the destructive effect of the use 
of dynamite in macerating the underlying 
strata and thus rendering it useless for fu- 
ture blasting the stone company has aban- 
doned its use, preferring ordinary gunpow- 
der. This objection does not obtain in the 
use of "Mitchellite," the underlying strata 
being practically unaffected. At the conclu- 
sion of the experiments made at the quarry 
the company's expert stated that the tests 
were perfectly satisfactory and that, in his 
opinion, there was a fortune in the new ex- 
plosive. 

The substance is named after its inventor, 
a Mr. Mitchell. It was first produced about 
a year ago and is already on the market at 
a retail price of twelve cents a pound (four 
cents cheaper than dynamite.) Analysis 
failed to fully determine the composition of 
the material and the secret remains with 
the inventor. 



220 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Novel Double Deck Street Car. 




THis Car VTill Seat 48 People on the Upper DecK. 



An open summer car, placed on top of a 
standard closed street car, is the latest 
type of double-deckers. Such cars are in 
use in Minneapolis. Tiie open car portion 
is thus really a street car without wlieels. 
Tlie upper deck is reached by spiral stair- 
ways placed at each eud of the closed car. 
In the winter the upper, or open car, is re- 



moved and the ordinary closed car is left. 
The Street Railway Journal says: 

"This car will seat 48 people on the 
upper deck, in addition to the capacity be- 
low of 51 seated and 65 standing. This is 
a remarkable achievement for a 45-foot car. 
The entire weight of the car and equipment 
is only about 26 tons. 



SELLING SUBMARINES TO BELLIG- 
ERENTS. 



It is common knowledge that several pri- 
vate shipyards in this country have ac- 
cepted and fulfilled large contracts for sub- 
marine boats for both Japan and Russia. 
This has brought up the question as to 
whether such contracts are a breach of neu- 
trality on the part of the government of the 
United States. In this regard a reliable 
authority on international law says: 

"It is fully recognized that a vessel com- 
pletely armed and in every respect fitted, 
the moment it receives its crew, to act as a 
man-of-war, is a proper subject of com- 
merce. There is nothing to prevent its neu- 
tral possessor from selling it and under- 
taking to deliver it in the neutral port or 
in that of the purchaser, subject to the 
right of the belligerent to seize it as con- 
traband if he meets it on the high seas or 
within his enemy's waters. 'There is noth- 
ing,' says Mr. Justice Story, delivering tho 
opinion of the United States Supreme Court 
in the case of Sautissima Trinidad, 'in the 



law of nations that forbids our citizens from 
sending armed vessels as well as munitions 
of war to foreign ports for sale. It is a 
commercial adventure which no nation is 
bound to prohibit.' If the neutral may sell 
his vessel when built, he may build it to 
order, and it must be permissible, as be- 
tween the belligerent and the neutral state, 
to give the order which it is permissible to 
execute. It Avould appear, therefore, argu- 
ing from general principles alone, that a 
vessel of war may be built, armed and fur- 
nished with a minimum navigating crew, 
and that in this state, provided it has not 
received a commission, it may clear from p. 
neutral harbor on a confessed voyage to a 
belhgercnt port without any infraction of 
neutrality having been committed." 

This is the view repeated in sense by sev- 
eral other authorities. Since the Civil War 
armed ships, constructed in this country and 
supplied to foreign countries while in a 
state of belligerency, have been a common 
incident of our industrial condition and one 
to which no exception has been officially 
taken by any country. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 221 

WHere Millions of Dollars are Made. 




THe Great Press Room at tHe Bureau of En^ravin^ and Printing, 

IVasKin^ton, D. C. 



The heavy silvor and gleaming gold an- 
nually converted into the coin of the realm 
at the government mints, represent but a 
fraction of tlie total value in currency, rev- 
enue and postage stamps, notes, bonds and 
other securities which during the year go 
througli the presses of that leviathan insti- 
tution, the government printing olRce. Into 
the numerous buildings, wareliouses and of- 
fices required to accommodate the Bureau of 
Printing and Engraving every week-day 
morning troop thousands of employes, men 
and women, young, middle-aged, old and 
aged, people of every degree, cluaracter and 
type up io the number of 3,691. Here they 
grind out the reports of committees, execu- 
tives, departments, consuls, in short, all the 
credentials a great nation presents to the 
people Avhose money it expends. Here some- 
times, when the stress of national affairs de- 
mands it, will be found another gigantic 
force toiling away the still hours of the 
night. 

Last year there was appropriated for the 
use of the Bureau, $6,000,000, and now the 



government is preparing to expend a quarter 
of a million in enlarging an institution that 
already includes large stables where are 
carefully sheltered and cared for the horses 
used in connection with the printing estab- 
lishment, printing papers warehouse, whence 
are issued daily thousands of reams of pa- 
per and where is stored with jealous care 
the paper upon which United States cur- 
rency is printed and no paper is given out 
of this warehouse without a certified order; 
binders' warehouse, where are stored the 
supplies required in the bindery; a huge 
foundry, where is plated hundreds of thou- 
sands of quarto and octavo pages, and huge 
vaults for the storing of such plates as are 
for preservation. These usually include re- 
ports of scientific and educational nature, 
such reports as are apt to be called for a 
second time. Many plates are remelted af- 
ter the required number of copies have been 
printed from them. Tlie vaults have a ca- 
pacity for upwards of 4,000,000 plates. 

Of all the people employed in the gov- 
ernment printing offices "2,920 are at work 



222 



E N C Y C L O P E D I A 



_ 




^ 


m 


l^jljjo^ 


B 




J^H^^M 


j^^l 


1 


w^^ 


^^1 



Counting Currency. 

making United States notes, bonds, internal 
revenue stamps, postage stamps, custom 
G camps, etc. Naturally the product of such 
employes is watched and safeguarded hy 
every means possible. All the printing is 
cone on old-fashioned hand presses, each of 
which requires two operatives. Currency is 
printed on-sbeots each of which contain four 
or five bins, while postage stamps are struck 
off in sheets ol four hundred. The Bureau 
has many unique machines that almost 
think. One of these is the wonderful geo- 
metrical lathe v.hich makes the intricate de- 
signs on the back of bank notes and an- 
other is a numbering machine which auto- 




matically numbers currency from 1 to 
1.000,000,000. The operations of the Bureau 
are surrounded with every precaution and 
the newly made money is counted fifty-four 
times during its transit through the insti- 
tution. 

In 1902 new designs for both the backs 
and faces for notes of the denominations 
of five, ten, fifteen, twenty, fifty and one 
hundred were engraved and this required 
that a gigantic force be kept busy day and 
night. On regular time $3,704,491.65 are 
paid out annually in salaries to the printing 
office employes. Much of the printed matter 
is now regarded as so much unnecessary ex- 
pense and, probably, its volume will soon be 
greatly reduced. 

A large reserve of United States notes and 
silver certificates is always kept in the 
Treasury vaults. Officials are always glad 
to see this reserve increase, as it gives the 
certificates time to become well seasoned 
and adds to their appearance and wearing 
qualities. 



HEAT WITHOUT FUEL. 



A colored man of St. Joseph, Mo., has in- 
vented an apparatus which he believes will 
in time do away with combustion for all 
purposes, except, possibly, foundry furnaces 
or similar cases where great heat is re- 
quired. 

Friction is the agency which the inventor 
proposes to use for producing heat and he 
has built a working model about three feet 
in length to demonstrate his idea. It con- 
sists of a steel tube surrounded by a jacket 
and inside of the tube a wooden roller cut 
into four triangular sections and arranged 
about a steel shaft. The wooden roller is 
five inches in diameter and the inside of the 
tube in which it runs is six inches in diam- 
eter. The water chamber outside of the 
tube is ten inches in diameter, leaving four 
inches in the water chamber. 



WATCH INSPECTION FOR BIG RAILWAY 

SYSTEMS. 



£n|fravin^ Postage Stamps* 



The duties of a traveliug watch inspector 
for a big railway system are much more 
arduous than one might imagine. One sys- 
tem pays $18,000 per year for this purpose 
only. It takes the assistant inspector two 
years to visit all the inspection points on 
the lines and each test of a watch lasts 72 
hours. If it varies six seconds in that time, 
it is rejected. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



PRIVATE ELECTRIC FIRE APPARATUS. 



Many property owners in the business dis- 
tricts of large cities are taliiug warning 
fi'om the Baltimore and the Toronto fires 
and installing private fire protection appa- ■ 
ratus. The Baltimore Fire Department ad- 
mits that many buildings on the immediate 
margin of .the devastated tract Avere saved 
only by tlie effective work of private ap- 
paratus. These buildings were supplied 



apparatus in Baltimore were valued at $5,- 
000,000, and at Toronto the saving from 
private protection was similar in extent. 

The advantage is that the apparatus is 
on the ground in position and ready for ac- 
tion, whereas a fire is usually well under 
■way before the city fire companies can ar- 
rive, arrange their hose lines and make nec- 
essary couplings and connections. A drench- 
ing of the entire building is then often re- 
quired, Avhile a comparatively small amount 




Electric Fire Protection Apparatus — Always Ready. 



with either stand pipes or pumps connected 
with wet-pipe interior sprinklers and dry- 
pipe sprinklers for protection from outside 
fires, storage tanks holding from 1,500 to 
15,000 gallons being placed on the roofs. 
Besides saving the buildings in which they 
were located these equipments stopped the 
advance of the fire, and undoubtedly many 
more buildings would have been destroyed 
in the absence of their efficient service. The 
buildings and contents protected by private 



of water Avould have put out the fire in the 
first place. 

A very interesting installation of private 
fire protection apparatus was recently made 
in a big Chicago department store. The ap- 
paratus is operated by electric power which 
is always available in a city and causes the 
least delay possible. The outfit consists of 
a duplex pump connected by single-reduc- 
tion gearing to a water-proof electric motor. 
The pump cylinders are 8 inches in diameter 



224 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



by 12 inches stroke, having a theoretical ca- 
pacity of 700 gallons per minute at 600 
R. P. M. against 140 pounds water pressure. 
The illustration gives a good general idea 
of the pump, showing the special attach- 
ments and the large pressure and vacuum 
chambers I'equired by insurance companies. 
The pump is thoroughlj^ rust-proof in all 
moving or wearing parts, insuring prompt 
and smooth running when occasion arises. 
The motor is shunt wound for 220 R. P. M. 
at 230 volts and is enclosed, all connections 
being carried through pipes screwed into the 
frame, so that the device may be flooded 
without affecting its action. The fields and 
armature coils are cooled by fans on the 
armature shaft, the ventilator intake and 
outlet being visible in the photograph. 

With such an apparatus hardly an emer- 
gency covild arise in which it could not be 
relied upon. The use of electric power is 
more economical than steam in that there 
is no stand-by or maintenance expense. 
♦-»♦ 

FLOATING MOTOR HOUSEBOAT ON THE 
MISSISSIPPI. 



Among all the queer craft that have navi- 
gated the Mississippi in the vicinity of St. 
Louis this year, none has attracted more 
attention than a houseboat which appears to 
be fitted with a huge paddle wheel almost 
as large again as the boat, and which is, 
in fact, a paddle wheel and motor drum 
combined. 




"The Qreat Wheel is Almost as Iiarge Again as the Boat' 

This wheel is 12 feet in diameter, 5i^ feet 
wide and its outer circumference is cov- 
ered in checkerboard effect with buckets, 3 
inches deep, four rows of 32 buckets each 
extending entirely around the wheel. The 
boat and the wheel each floats on its own 
keel. The wheel rests in the water at the 
center of a catamaran boat platform. 

The paddle-wheel-motor-drum is open in 



the center of each side and in one side has 
a door through which "Nig.," the motor, is 
admitted. "Nig" is a pony who treads the 
great wheel and causes it to revolve, thus 
propelling the boat. He is hitched in a pair 
of shafts, and climbs the wheel as a squir- 
rel does in a revolving cage. 

"Nig" is considered a character among 
Mississippi rivermen, who all know him. 
The inventor of the houseboat, Charles Mar- 
tell, a French Canadian carpenter, believes 
old wheels of river boats can be utilized in 
this manner and that such craft will some 
day cause the Mississippi to teem again witli 
traffic. 

♦ * » 

AUTOMATIC SCULPTORS. 



A Berlin inventor has succeeded in per- 
fecting a new automatic sculptor which 
copies models in every particular just like 
the originals. This is the second invention 
of this nature, but the first works horizon- 
tally while this works vertically. The oper- 
ation of the machine is as follows: The 




statue-Copying Machine in Operation. 

operator swings down the delicately-poised 
frame on to the dummy; the pointer is hover- 
ing over the model to be copied, and in- 
stantly the revolving drills cut into the 
rough blocks of wood or stone, shaping 
them speedily as the point is moved to and 
fro. According to the capacity of the ma- 
chine from two to eight copies may be 
made of any model in relief or intaglio. 
The largest machine can do the work of 
twenty-six highly-paid craftsmen. 



E N C Y ( ' T. O r E D I A 



22.') 



ASPHALT PAVING HEATS HORSES' 
SHOES. 



A horse shod with metal shoes should 
not be driven rapidly on an asphalt pave- 
ment. The heat produced will not onlj^ be 
painful to the horse, but may seriously in- 
jure him. One of our subscribers recently 
called to relate his experience in driving on 
asphalt pavement. He was riding horse- 
back in company with a friend, when the 
two engaged in a friendly race. After they 
had gone about a mile, his friend's horse 
threw a shoe. Going back to the place the 
rider dismounted and picked up the shoe, 
which was so hot it not only severely blis- 
tered his hand, but did not cool so it could 
be taken up for several minutes. At each 
step the horse slips a little, and this con- 
stant rapid sliding of the metal shoe, under 
weight, upon the sand contained in the 
pavement, generated a high degree of heat. 



TRANSPORTING THE WOUNDED ON 
GERMAN WAR VESSELS. 



The German navy has adopted a method 
of transferring sick or wounded men from 
one vessel to another or sending them 
ashore, which is claimed to be very com- 
fortable for the patient and a most con- 





Lacing the Patient in the Canvas Shroud. 

venient way of handling helpless bodies. 
The device is at least unique. 

The sick man is first laced up in a stout 
canvas shroud and, after this operation, 
looks as though he might have been re- 
moved from some ancient Egyptian tomb. 
The back is stiffened so there is no possi- 
bility of the patient's bending, and the sides 
are provided with strong rope handles. The 
upper rings of the canvas casing are then 
bent on to the raising tackle, and the sick 
man is sent up a steel chute in the twink- 
ling of an eye. 



Sending the Patient up a Steel Chute. 



HOW TO STRAIGHTEN PAPER. 

Who has not been annoyed by blue prints, 
drawings or other papers which, having 
been rolled for some time, ■•efused to lie 
flat when in use? And yet it is a very 
simple matter to straighten the paper so 
that it will give no more trouble. 

Hold the paper l)y the corners or by the 
ends and draw down over the sharp corner 
of the drawing board or table, or else lay 
the hand on the sheet at the table edge and 
draw the sheet through with the other. In 
this way it can be easilv straightened. 



226 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



NEW FIRE BOAT FOR MANCHESTER 
SHIP CANAL. 



A new fire boat, the "Firefly," has been 
built for the Manchester, England, Ship 
Canal. It is the largest ever built in Eng- 
land, and cost $50,000. It is 90 feet long 




The "Firefly," Fire and Salvage Steamer for Use on the 
Manchester Ship Canal. 

by 23 feet beam, but only draws 3 feet; 
speed 8 Ivuots; propellers, twin screw type. 
Two pumps have a capacity of 2,000 gal- 
Ions, and two salvage pumps, centrifugal 
type, deliver 2,500 gallons per minute. Two 
31/4-inch streams were thrown to a height 
of 100 feet. 

♦ • » 

THE HYDROVOLVE, A NEW FORM OF 
WATER WHEEL. 



A new water wheel of a construction com- 
bining features of both the overshot wheel 
and the turbine has recently been patented 
in several countries. The important feature 
of this new wheel, which is called the 




Diacn^m of Hydrovalve. 

hydrovolve, is the peculiar construction 
of the buckets which carry the water 
to the point of exit, where a reactionary 
effect which utilizes all the remaining force 
of the water takes place as it leaves the 



buckets, so that the water in the tail is al- 
most quiet instead of, as with many older 
types of wheels and with turbines, whirl- 
ing and swirling, full of unused energy. 

The construction of the hydrovolve is 
shown in the sketch. It consists of a hor- 
izontal axis, a, a closed shrouding, b, and a 
partially closed paddle box, thus forming a 
circular channel bent around a central point 
opening out. The paddles and cells, c, 
within this circular channel are of peculiar 
construction. There are two rows of buck- 
ets, the first of Avhich form cells with the 
shrouding itself, and the second row be- 
ing cells of which the inner rims are lower 
than the outer ones, the walls of the inside 
circle of buckets forming outlets for this 
second row. When a pair of these upper 
cells are filled the water flows over inside 
the wheel to the next pair of cells and so on 
through all the pairs of cells in turn to the 
point of exit. This loads the rim of the 
wheel to the full half of its periphery and 
gives a very great starting power. The re- 
actionary effect at the exit is caused by the 
water passing from the inside over the 
outer buckets to escape. 

The wheel in the sketch is drawn to a 
scale of 1:40 and is adapted to a fall of 
7 feet 2% inches with a flow of 122,044 
cujbic inches per second. The dimensions 
of this wheel are as follows: diameter, 67 
inches; depth, 19% inches; width, 9 feet 10 
inches. The wheel develops 54 effective 
horsepower. 

♦-•-♦ 

FIRST GASOLINE ROAD ROLLER IN ENG- 
LAND. 



The illustration shows the first gasoline 
road roller which was recently built in 
England. The machine weighs 16 tons, has 
a 25-horsepower engine, which consumes 
8 gallons per day. The rear wheels are 
the drivers, and reverse is secured through 
a double friction clutch. The cooling wa- 
ter is carried in the lower tank shown, and 
circiilation effected by a pump. 




The First aasoUne Bead Boiler 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



227 



MOTOR BOATS FOR OCEAN RACES. 



HOW MIRRORS ARE MADE. 



Motor boats for crossing the ocean in the 
contemplated competition should be nearer 
400 feet than 40 feet, declares Mr. W. E. H. 
Humphries, an Englishman and a practical 
motorist of wide experience. He says: 

"The conditions of the race are that the 
boats shall be able to travel at a speed of 
at least 15 knots, shall carry all their own 
fuel, lubricating oil, and spare parts, and 
shall start with at least six persons on 



Silver has Taken the Place of Mercury 



The making of modern mirrors consists 
first in ridding the glass to be used of all 
defects and then silvering. If the mirror 
is to be beveled, additional operations of 
beveling and preparing the glass precede the 
silvering. Nowadays silver has, to quite an 
extent, taken the place of mercury in this 
industry. 




Inhere tHe Silverizk^ is Done 



board. This rules out of the contest all 
small racing craft. The normal consumption 
of a petrol engine may be regarded as 1 pint 
per horsepower per hour, which means that 
for every 100 horsepower of the engine 
there is consumed approximately 300 gal- 
tons per day. With a 15-knot boat the pass- 
age from Havre to New York might be ex- 
pected to occupy from twelve to fifteen 
days. Hence for every 100 horsepower of 
the engine it will be necessary to carry 
4,500 gallons of fuel, occupying approxi- 
mately 723 cubic feet of space and weigh- 
ing 15 tons, or more, if fuels heavier and 
less efficient than petrol be employed. To 
complete the absurdity, the Calais-Dover 
racer would require, to enable it to cross 
the Atlantic, a bulk of petrol of greater 
weight and greater displacement than the 
boat itself. 



In selecting glass suitable for mirrors, the 
experienced workman, by placing a piece of 
black cloth behind the glass, and looking 
through at an angle, quickly discovers all 
defects. Even the scratches and stains must 
be removed in the making of a really good 
mirror. Scratches are removed by holding 
the glass upon an upright buffing wheel cov- 
ered with felt. The stains are removed by 
a device known as a "blocking machine." 
Unless it is to be beveled a glass free from 
stains and scratches is ready for silvering. 

For beveled mirrors, plate glass is used. 
The bevel is obtained by holding the glass 
against a horizontal roughing wheel, sand 
and water also playing an important part 
in the operation. The bevel, like the sur- 
face, must also be polished. An emery wheel 
is used to remove the sand and clean the 
surface. Then after being held against a 



228 



E N C Y (' T. O P E D J A 




Buffing the Beveled Qlass. 

horizontal gnndstone, a polishing wheel 
with pumice stone is used. To brighten the 
glass, a buffing wheel with rouge upon it 
is emploj^ed. 
At least three things are claimed for silver 



in place of mercury in the making of mir- 
rors. In the first place, that it reflects more 
light; secondly, that mirrors can be turned 
out in less time, and, in the third place, that 
the work is made more healthy for the 
employes. In silvering a modern mirror, 
after the glass has been freed from defects 
and sufficiently polished and washed, a 
preparation that will hold the silver is 
poured on. Next the glass is removed to 
a perfectly smooth table which is heated 
by steam. As the silver solution is poured 
upon this table a goodly per cent of it at 
once begins to adhere, the remainder later 
being drained off. Over the back, shellac 
is then applied to keep out the moisture. 

In the earlier days of mirror- making, 
sheets of tin foil were first placed upon the 
surface of the glass and pressed closely to 
it, after which it was covered with quick- 
silver, the quicksilver at once forming an 
amalgam with the tin. Various methods are 
employed in making mirrors where quick- 
silver is used. 



GAIN IN QUICKSILVER PRODUCTION IN 
1903. 



An official report says that the production 
of quicksilver in the United States during 
1903 amounted to 35,620 flasks of 76% 
pounds each, valued at $1,544,934, an in- 
crease in quantity of 1,329 flasks and in 
value of $77,086 over 1902. California and 
Texas mines are the largest producers of 
the metal. 




Holding the Glass Upon the Horizontal Smoothing Wheels. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

LoMT Tide in tKe Harbor of Panama. 



229 




Courtesy tf SmiLhS-i 

JPcene at Lcvir Tide in tHe Harbor of Panama. 



In the illustration is shown a most un- 
usual scene characteristic of the harbor of 
Panama at low tide. Across the little isth- 
mus on the Atlantic side at Colon the range 
of tide is only one foot, but on the Pacific 
side it is 20 feet. 

During low tide the ships rest on the 
beach where the loading and unloading is 



carried on quite as though the place were 
never covered with deep water. Wagons 
and horses, native laborers, sailors, boxes 
and casks crowd the shores. High tide 
finds them all removed, and the crews and 
cargoes aboard the vessels ready to be 
floated again upon the accommodating 
deep. 



NAPHTHALINE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR 
GASOLINE. 



In countries not so rich as ours in nat- 
ural supplies of petroleum, a great deal of 
experimenting is done in an effort to find a 
substitute for gasoline as fuel in Internal 
combustion motors. As a result, in France 
automobiles using alcohol as fuel are in 
competition with those using gasoline and 
in England, where alcohol is heavily taxed, 
there is one car in which kerosene has 
been successfully substituted. 

Two French engineers, however, have 
produced the best substitute yet tried, hav- 
ing perfected a method of using solid fuel- 
naphthaline. In this system a reservoir con- 
tains the fuel which is liquefied and sprayed 



into the engine cylinder and carries with it 
enough air to insure proper combustion. 
The one drawback to this system is that 
to secure the high temperature required for 
the vaporization of the solid fuel the pre- 
liminary use of gasoline is involved. 

Naphthaline is an inexpensive coal tar by- 
product and is familiar to every one in the 
form of moth balls. 

♦ •» 

The ordinary watch cannot be used on 
submarine boats, but a special Avatch, the 
construction of whicli conforms with the 
conditions within the underwater craft, is 
necessary. These watches cost from $75 to 
$100. None is manufactured in the United 
States as yet for watchmakers are loth to 
invest for the first order of them. 



230 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CONSTRUCTION OF A GAS TURBINE- 
ENGLISH INSTITUTE PRONOUNCES 
UNFAVORABLY. 



The success of the steam turbine is stim- 
ulating builders of gas engines to perfect a 
gas turbine. Such a machine in small pow- 
ers would be welcomed by automobile and 
launch owners. A 200-horsepower gas tur- 
bine is being built by the Stolze Gasturbine 
Company, of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Ger- 
many, to which we are indebted for the 
particulars given below: 

In this engine atmospheric air is com- 
pressed to a moderate tension, say 1^^ 
atmos. above atmospheric pressure, and 
heated afterwards so as to assume a 2 or 
21/4 fold volume at the same tension, after 
which the air is allowed to expand down 
again to atmospheric pressure. The excess 
of work performed over the absorbed energy 
is thus due to the increase in volume re- 
sulting from the heating. 

Two sets of turbines of different design 
are mounted on a common axle. One of 
these serves as air compressor, while the 
other drives the shaft by means of the 
heated air. Either set consists of several 
rows of guiding vanes, fitted to the engine 
casing and of several rows of running vanes 
of a corresponding design, being fitted to a 
common rotating cone which turns round 
along with the shaft. Now, one of these 
turbine systems sucks in the fresh air, com- 
pressing it to a given tension through a 
preheater (heated with exhaust gases) and 
driving the greater part of it into a chamber 
lined with fireproof material. The smaller 
part is conveyed beneath the grate of a pro- 
ducer where it serves to gasefy a conven- 
ient fuel. The gas thus formed penetrates 
into the chamber alluded to, to be burnt 
there by the compressed air in suitable 
burners to carbonic acid and water vapor, 
while evolving large amounts of heat. These 
gases next penetrate into the second turbine 
system, where they are allowed to expand 
in traversing the various steps, thus yield- 
ing useful work. 

The process is thus analogous to the cycle 
performed in all combustion engines, con- 
sisting of a suction of air, that is followed 
by the compression of the same, the mixing 
with fuel, combustion, expansion and sub- 
sequent discharge. A distinguishing feat- 
ure is, however, that the mixing takes place 
after compression and the combustion at 
constant pressure. 



On the other hand the Institute of Me- 
chanical Engineers (England), at its Octo- 
ber session, expressed its belief that "a 
gas turbine is, for the time being, at all 
events, mechanically impossible." 

The Engineer, London, says editorially: 

"There is not in existence, and possibly 
never can be, a commercial gas turbine; 
and the main value of the discussion. lies in 
its power to serve as a guide, and prevent 
the waste of money on impossible combina- 
tions of mechanism. The paramount diffi- 
culty lies in the circumstance that the 
moving gas has to be admitted to the tur- 
bine at a temperature which would at once 
raise the blades to a bright red heat. As 
the gas must contain free oxygen the steel 
blades would be "burned" in a few hours. 
It is true that suggestions were made for 
the cooling of the blades by water, but we 
must take account with centrifugal force; 
and it is very far from easy to see how 
Avater could be used without upsetting the 
very delicate balance of the wheel. So 
great is the temperature difficulty that we 
might almost leave the discussion of the 
questions raised here; but even about im- 
possible engines there are points worth dis- 
cussing, and it is indisputable that much 
ingenuity has been manifested by Mr. Par- 
sons and others in trying to devise methods 
of keeping the wheels cool. For example, 
the hot gas jet acts at one diameter of the 
wheel while a cold-water jet is projected on 
it at another. 

"The first condition of success Is, of 
course, that gas shall be available to work 
the turbine. Now, in a reciprocating en- 
gine the gas is fired in a cylinder, behind a 
piston, and produces driving pressure. 
Nothing of this kind can take place in the 
turbine. The only conceivable turbine, we 
think, driven by gas must be one working 
on the De Laval principle, because in it a 
wheel might run red hot, being as it is, so 
to speak, free 'in the open'; but the mate- 
rial has yet to be found which would endure 
the centrifugal effort at the temperature. 
But let it be supposed that all mechanical 
difficulties were overcome, and that a fire- 
clay turbine were possible, actuated by gas 
in the condition of a white-hot flame. What 
would be gained, and how much better 
would the new machine be than the recip- 
I'ocating gas engine or the steam turbine?" 
♦*» 

Last year the prodiiction of asbestos in 
the United States was 874 tons, compared 
with 1,005 tons in 1902. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 231 

Conning Tourer— Brain of tHe BattlesKip* 




THe Conning To'wrer is tHe Brain of tHe BattlesHip. From tHis center of 
intense acti'vity communication leads to ev^ery^ ^workin^ member of 
tHe sHip. THe en^inest rudder, turrets, pumps, ^uns, torpedoes, 
si^nals-«all tHese tHin^s are directed from tHe Conning Xo-wrer i>\ 
time of actioxk. E^irery part of tHe sHip is made respondent to tHe 
totxcH of a buttozk, tHe movemex&t of a small lever, or verbal ii&» 
structioxk tbrougfH a perfect system of telepHoxxe coi^z^ection. 



THe "AutopyropHon," a Neur Automatic Fire 

Alarm. 



The "autopyrophon" is a small glass tube 
bent in the shape of a capital U, one-half 
of which is filled with mercury and the 
other with some highly volatile liquid, sul- 
phuric ether, for instance. The ends of the 
tube are closed and one of the upper parts 
is surrounded by a cover of some non-heat 
conducting material; both parts are fitted 
with an electric wire melted into the glass. 

This little appartus, which measures 3.94 
inches in height, 2.76 inches in width, and 
.78 inches in depth, is placed at any con- 
venient point in a room. If the tempera- 
ture of the room rises evenly the mercury 
in the tube stands at equal heights in both 
ends and the apparatus is not affected, but 
should a fire break out and the tempera- 



ture in the room be suddenly raised the 
ether above the mercury in the glass tube, 
which is unprotected, evaporates, the pres- 
sure of the generated vapors causes the mer- 
cury to sinlc in the tube and rise in the other 
part completing the electric circuit and 
electric alarms at any and as many points 
as desired are set in motion. The appartus 
acts for an indefinite length of time and 
it is not necessary to renew the sub- 
stances. 

W. F. Wright, United States Consul-Geu- 
eral at Munich, Germany, who reports this 
invention, was present at a demonstration 
in which a fire from a small pile of shav- 
ings in an ordinary-sized room acted on the 
apparatus in eight seconds. 



232 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



BORING HOLES IN LOG WATER MAINS. 



An Eye Witness Tells How It Was ?"Done a 
Generation Ago. 



On page 256 appears a description and 
illustration of an old log water main used in 
New York City 107 years ago and recently 
unearthed there. Many were the surmises 
as to how the hole through the center of 
the large log had been bored. W. E. Dale, 9f 
Atlanta, Ga., whose father had charge of 
the plant for boring holes in the logs used 
in the first waterworks system of Augusta, 
Ga., sends us some very interesting informa- 
tion on this point. 

Boring the holes was accomplished in a 
lathe-like machine in which the log was made 
to revolve instead of the boring tool. This 
machine was in the shape of a half cylinder, 
tapering to and having a gimlet point at its 
axis on one end. At the other end a yoke 
terminated in a shank that bolted on to the 
tool rod. The boring tool was some 10 or 
12 in. long and from 3 to 4 in. in diameter. 
A cutting edge extended from the base of 
the gimlet point tlie entire length of the 
tool, against which the wood revolved and 
was cut away and smoothed. 

Two double flanged, 2-sectioned cast- 
iron pulleys, with openings in the hub large 
enough to girdle the log, rested on a casting 
having a half-circle concavity with same 
radius as the pulley face and same width 
as the face; while the flanges, one of which 
was tootlied, prevented the pulleys from 
getting out of place. 

To operate, the half of each pulley was 
removed, leaving one-half each on the bed 
casting. A log was then rolled into them 
and the other halves put on and bolted to- 
gether. The log was then centered and se- 
cured by wedging inside the hubs; a pinion, 
working the toothed flange already men- 
tioned, imparted motion to the log. The 
rear end of the tool or carrier-rod was fast- 
ened to a movable frame working on guide 
rails set so as to guide the tool along the 
axis of the revolving log. 

The operator Avould first start the tool in 
while standing near the end of the log, so 
as to have it enter at the axis, he would 
then go back and push the tool through by 
shoving on the frame running on the guide 
rails. 

The manner of coupling the wooden pipes 
together when putting them down was very 
simple and effectual. The couplings were 



of cast iron, some 14 to 16 i-J.. in length, 
of same calibre as the log pipe, about % in. 
thick at each end and gradually increasing 
in thickness from each end to the center, 
where they were about 1 in. thick and rein- 
forced by a bead. 

The logs had been counter-bored for a 
sliort distance at each end so as to com- 
pensate for the thickness of the cast-iron 
coupling. In coupling together the last log 
put down would be forced by levers or 
jackscrews against the coupling until it had 
become wedged sulRciently to form a water- 
tight joint. 

The hydrants were formed by cutting off 
n piece of the bored log long enough to come 
2 or 3 ft. above ground, its lower end con- 
necting with a tee coupling; top end 
plugged; a hole bored into the center and a 
spigot driven in. 

The pipes were all made from soft yellow 
pine, 12 to 16 in. diameter, and the springs 
from which the water came were about 
three miles from farthest end of the sys- 
tem. 

The logs were not peeled or otherwise 
prepared, except as mentioned, before put- 
ting down. This system was in use as late 
as the '70's as an auxiliary to the more mod- 
ern system. 



MULTIPLYING WATER POWER. 



Tlie annexed sketch shows how a Ger- 
man inventor proposes to make the most 
possible use of flowing water. The plan 
consists in making tlie stream operate a 
series of undershot wheels simultaneously. 
As these are coupled together, the total 
power can be collected and transmitted to 
a shaft or other device. 




Multiplies IVater Poiver 

The power of the waterfall multiplied 
into the number of wheels will be that 
which drives the machinery. In the sketch 
the wheels are connected together by means 
of a chain or belting, and one of them 
transmits the power to a shaft furnished 
with a flywheel. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



233 



TKe "Cumberland" — New Training SHip for 
American Jackies 




L>ata.x\chin|^ tHe "Cumberland'* at tHe Boston Navy Yard 



One of the new additions to the United 
States navy is the "Cumberland," recently 
launched at the government navy yards at 
Boston, Mass. This vessel, which is a steel 
sailing ship with a length over all of 210 
feet 6 inches, draught of 16 feet 5 inches, 
and a displacement of 1,800 tons, will be 
used strictly as a training ship to teach 
young "jackies" how to sail a ship and 
shoot a gun. The only machinery on board 



are four engines for auxiliary purposes, 
such as hoisting, lighting and water con- 
densing. 

Accommodations have been provided for 
16 commissioned and warrant officers and 
320 enlisted men. 

The battery consists of six 4-inch rapid- 
fire guns, four 6-pounders, two 1-pounders, 
and two Colt automatic guns, calibre 30. 
The cost will be about $370,000. 



THe "Overland" Mail in THibet 




Ho-w tHe Mail Ba^s of tHe BritisH Mission to THibet Are Carried 

BacK to India 

The bags are carried on rude ekka carts command of the native attendants accom- 
drawn by yaks. A British soldier is in panying the carts. 



234 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Bridge Building in tl\e PHilippines 



The construction of bridges in 
the Philippines is attended with 
a good many difficulties, not the 
least being that the tall trees 
of from three to fiA^e feet in 
diameter which are used nearlj- 
always have bees' nests in their 
tops and running when the 
trees fall does not save the men 
from stings. 

Moreover, the engineers and 
native workmen must be at- 
tended by soldiers to protect 
them from attacks by Moro war- 
riors. 

The trees are felled with tiny 
axes and then there is neither 
saw mill or power plant to cut 
the timber; the work is done 
with hatchets and axes. The 
huge, tough roots of the trees 
are used for pinning the logs to- 
gether, big bridges often being 
built without even an iron spike 
in the whole structure. The 
bridges are immense pyramids 
of heavy hardwood logs, with a 
for weight. Great timbers are 




Buildin*' a Bridge in tlie PHilippines 



rock filling 
laid across 

the supports and these are covered with a 
flooring of lumber. The bridge must be 
heavy to hold against swift currents. 



ROAD LOCOMOTIVES 



Road locomotive is the name which is 
now properly applied to the monster ma- 
chines wliich are the outgrowtli of the little 
traction engine of a few years ago. The 
size, weight and power of the road locomo- 
tive has increased with the rapidly increas- 
ing uses to which it is now applied. 

One of the latest types of road locomo- 
tives; a machine 25 feet in length, 10 feet 
wide and measuring 13 feet in height. The 
rear wheels are 96 inches diameter, 30-incli 
face; front wheels 54 inches, 14-inch face. 
The fire box is 58 by 39 by 45 inches; 93 boil- 
er tubes, 2 inches diameter, 108 inches long; 
the grate area is 15 square feet, and the en- 
tire heating surface is 508 square feet. The 
boiler pressure is 160 pounds; engine speed, 
200 revolutions per minute. Tlie tender is of 
steel and will carry 520 gallons of water, 
sufficient for three bours, and 1,200 pounds 
of coal, which will run five hours on 
ordinary roads. The locomotive has a speed 



ranging from 2.64 miles to 5.69 miles per 
hour; the speed being regulated through 
gearing. 

Tliis machine is capable of drawing from 
40 to 50 tons up grades from 5 to 10 per 
cent. The levers are all placed on one side 
for easy control from the engineer's seat. 

When the good roads movement has se- 
cured really good roads throughout the coun- 
try, the movement of farm produce in wagon 
trains drawn by road locomotives will be a 
common sight, and will enable tne farmer 
to choose his line for shipment of freight 
without regard to his nearest railroad sta- 
tion. 

»>» 
TAKING OUT BRUISES IN FURNITURE. 



If the bruise is very small all that is nec- 
essary is to soalt it Avith warm Avater and 
apply a red-hot poker near the surface, 
keeping the spot continually wet until the 
bruise disappears, which will occur in a few 
moments. 

For larger bruises or dents Avet the part 
with Avarm water and double a piece of 
brown paper five or six times, soak it, lay 
on the bruise, and then apply on top of the 
Avetted paper a hot flatiron until the mois- 
ture has all eA-aporated. Keep this process 
up until the surface is level. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA '235 

Meteor Aiito» a FrencH Amusement 



A French pleasure resort has 
installed the most thrilling 
loop-the-loop device of any yet 
in operation. The apparatus is 
not so far open to the use of 
the public, which is continually 
demanding madder sensations, 
but, strangely enough, a woman, 
Madame Mauricia de Tiers, takes 
the seemingly perilous flight 
night after night, and the 
sight comes near affording sen- 
sation enough for even the most 
daring. The apparatus would, 
of course, perform the same 
wonderful feat without an oc- 
cupant for the little carriage 
which makes the .iourney, but 
the insatiable public demands 
that a human being sliall take 
the ride with all its risks, 
though the occupant in. nowise 
controls the vehicle. 

At the beginning of the dar- 
ing feat Madame de Tiers seats 
herself in the little carriage, 
which weighs about 882 pounds 
and is shaped much like an 
ordinary automobile. It is 3 
feet 3 inches wide and 5 feet 2 
inches long. The under side of 
this vehicle is provided with rollers, as 
shown in the cut, which hold the car on 
the rails of the track on which it 
travels. The start is made on a 45- 
degree incline, which, at a height of 42% 
feet above the ground, terminates in an arc 
of a circle, around which the vehicle dashes 
at a rate of nearly 40 miles an hour, and 
with a slight backward motion is carried by 
its momentum out across 33 feet of space, 
with Avlieels revolving, and is thus turned 
completely over and strikes a second 
incline, where the vehicle continues its 
course until terra firma is again reached. 
Fig. 1 shows the occupant on this second de- 
clivity as she always appears after the mad 
ride, smiling, serene, seemingly wholly un- 
affected by the perils through which she has 
just passed. The large view is from an in- 
stantaneous photograph made for La 
Nature. 

The steering wlieel on the auto does not 
guide the vehicle's movements, but is only 
for effect 




XHe Meteor Au.to>«A FrencH IvOO]>«tHe> 
Loop and I^eap-tHe-Gap Device 



PORTABLE FLOATING DOCK FOR BALTIC 
FLEET. 



A floating workshop is considered indis- 
pensable to the operations of a modern bat- 
tle fleet, but Admiral Rozhdestvensky has 
improved on this, and expects to be able to 
take a dock with the Baltic fleet out to the 
Far East. The admiral has given orders 
for a floating dock consisting of small sec- 
tions to be built at Odessa with the utmost 
dispatch. There are to be eighty separate 
sections, which can be connected up so as 
to form a dock of different lifting capaci- 
ties, with a depth over the keel blocks of 
from 26 feet to 27 feet. This would enable 
the dock to lift the cruisers of the squadron, 
although it would not admit some of the 
l)attleships which have mean draughts of 
from 26 feet to 29 feet. But as the dock 
is being built at Odessa, it is evidently in- 
tended to send it away by the cruiser de- 
tachment, which will go east by the Supz 
Canal- 



236 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



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ENCYCLOPEDIA 



23: 



Stii&ken Treasure of Old SpanisK Galleons 
to be Raised by Compressed Air 



The sunken treasure ships of Spain are 
at last to yield their secrets and their treas- 
ure to the wondering eyes of men. For a 
period of 200 years they have rested under 
90 feet of water on the bed of the Bay of 
Vigo, half buried by shifting clouds of sand 
poured upon them by two rivers which flow 



into the bay. The ships are supposed to 
contain $140,000,000 of treasure, but all ef- 
forts by divers to recover it hitherto have 
been fruitless because of the sand whicli 
prevented them seeing anything at that 
depth. 

Cavaliere Pino, a Spaniard, as his name 




Pig 1 — Water Telescope. Fig. 3 — Compressed Air Elevator. 

Fig. 2 — Guns Raised b.v Apparatus. Pig. 4 — Framework of Elevator. 

Fig. 5 — Inflating the Bags. 



238 



E N C Y f ' Ti O P K D [ A 



indicates, has invented an apparatus by 
wliicli tlie recovering of the sunlien treasure 
is now assured. It consists of a water-tele- 
scope, tlie like of Avliich was never before 
used for wreck-raising purposes. From a 
steel platform buoyed up by a mass of cork 
depends a strong steel tube large enough for 
a man to descend its full length on the 
steps within. The bottom of the tube is 
open and through it plays a strong current 
of compressed air to keep out the water. 
At the lower end of the tube is a huge 
camera having 12 powerful lenses which 
Avere specially constructed by Saint Goubin 
of Paris, and through which the man within 
the tube can view the wreckage to his 
heart's content and the tube can be slowly 
moved so that he can handle and examine 
any particular object (Fig. 1). 

The tube, which is now in the course of 
construction, will be telescopic and capable 
of being elongated to meet the I'equirements 
of depth. It will be built in watertight 
compartments, lit by electric lamps and 
communication with the surface will be 
by telephone. 

The Spaniard's method of raising wreck- 
age is quite as unique and ingenious as his 
hydroscope. In Fig. 4 is shown the frame- 
work on which large flexible bags are ar- 
ranged and connected to the special plat- 
forms of the framewprk. In operation this 
apparatus is attached to the object or ob- 
jects to be raised and compressed air is 
pumped into the bags until the air pressure 
overcomes the resistance of the water and 
of the object and the compressed air eleva- 
tor rises to the surface with its load, as in 
Fig. 3, where it is bringing up old guns. 
The guns so raised are shown at Fig. 2, 
and at Fig. 5 is shown the method of in- 
flating the bags. 

♦-•-♦ 

UNITED STATES BATTLESHIPS NOW 
UNDER CONSTRUCTION 



WIRE ROPE MADE BY THE ROMANS 1,800 
YEARS AGO. 



The two battleships "Connecticut" and 
"Louisiana" recently launched, each of 
16,000 tons displacement, will be among the 
most powerful battleships in the world. Be- 
sides these the government now has under 
construction eight large armored cruisers, 
two of 14,500 tons, three of 14,000 tons, and 
three of 13,600 tons and eight other battle- 
ships, three of 15,000 tons, two of 14,600 
tons, two of 13,000 tons and one of 12,500 
tons. If all these are in commission by 
1908 we will have 24 battleships and 10 
armored cruisers in our navy. 



Nearly 2,000 years ago the Romans knew 
how to manufacture wire rope which closely 
resembled the wire rope in use at the pres- 
ent day. This astonishing fact was brought 
to light by the recent discovery of a coil of 
wire rope in the ruins of Pompeii. The 
rope is about 15 feet long and 1 inch in 
circumference. It is made of bronze wire 







'NOTHING 
: HEW 
UNDER / 

■ ■ .THE ■:;.;/.:; 



Coil of "Wire Rope, 1,825 Years Old 

and consists of three strands of spirally con- 
nected wire, each strand being made of 15 
Avires twisted together. A most interesting 
fact is that the rope is stranded in accord- 
ance with lang lay, which is in general 
use today. 

It is believed that the rope was used as a 
crane rope, for pieces of cranes were found 
also. These cranes, it is generally believed, 
were worked by slaves who were placed in- 
side a large drum, which was turned in a 
tread-mill fashion and thus worked the 
small drum around which the rope was 
found. 

Pompeii was buried in A. D. 79, about 
1,825 years ago. The coil of rope is now 
in the Musio Barbonico at Naples. 



At an expense of $30,000 the Pullman 
Company will establish laundries, where at 
the end of a run all its employes may have 
their clothes cleaned at the expense of the 
company. Each of thousands of employes 
will be given three complete uniforms. 



E i\ (■ V CT.O P E 1) I A 239 

Forecasting SKip Speed and Action 



ffoiv tKe Governxnerxt Determines Precisely \^ha.t a Great 
BattlesHip "Will Do Before Even tlie Keel is I^aid 



There is at the Washington Navy Yard a 
peculiar and interesting factory, the like of 
which is not found elsewhere in this coun- 
try. It is a boat building factory, but the 
boats are not used for carrying people or 
things, nor are they toys. They are war- 
ships in miniature, the unequipped hulls, 
known as ship-models. "When the govern- 
ment desires a new warship, and Congress 
makes the necessary appropriation for it, the 
Construction Department of the Xavy makes 



These trials may prove satisfactory at first 
tests, but if not so the model's lines are 
changed until better results are secured. 

The model making factory is a large build- 
ing situated near the model testing tank, 
close to the Potomac River, and contains 
a number of electric motors that do all the 
power work, except in one particular, the 
use of hydraulic pressure for putting to- 
gether wooden blocks— "blocks of shape"— 
from which an initial model is made. These 




Testing TanK 'With Model Goin^ at Four Knots an Hour* or 
One>FourtH SHip Speed 



the detailed plans in drawings giving every 
portion of the proposed vessel. This is done 
for two purposes — for furnishing working 
plans for contractors or government em- 
ployed workmen, and for guides in making 
a model of the ship. The Department de- 
sires to know as far as possible what the 
speed and action of the designed ship will 
be at sea; and to find this a model of the 
vessel is constructed, run through the water 
of the testing tank and its actions noted. 



blocks are worked down to conform to the 
drawn ship plans, until an approximate 
hull-frame is obtained; over this, small half- 
round strips, making a corrugated appear- 
ance, are placed, and then plaster of Paris 
is put on and manipulated until the surface 
lines laid down in the plans are obtained. 

After the bottom of the initial model is 
smoothed down it is taken to a reciprocat- 
ing lathe, a machine about 40 feet long, op- 
erated by means of eight 5-horsepower 



240 



ENC YCLOP RDl A 




Side View of Model "Under Ftxll Steam* 



electric motors, and consisting principally of 
saws, planes and a guiding arm mounted on 
sliding carriages. While the first model is 
being made, a second, the real representation 
of the big ship, is in part constructed; thick 
strips of planking about three inches wide 
are glued together forming a rough shape 
of the true model needed. The initial model 
is now placed on the lower platform of the 
reciprocating machine and the true model 
placed above where it can be engaged by 
the shaping tools. When the machinery is 
set in motion the guiding arm, having at 
its end a concave metal block, follows the 
shape of the under model, and reciprocating 
saws cut to depths representing the lat- 
ter's shape in the upper one. The model 
is now automatically planed down to the 
saw-cut shape, and is then Avorked over 
from measurements with hand tools until all 
the lines of the drawn plans are justified. 

Now the embrj^o ship is painted, weighed, 
furnished with mechanical attachments 
and taken to the model testing tank to prove 
its fitness for the work desired. The tank 
is in a brick building 500 feet long by about 
50 feet wide. On both sides of this there is 
a railed track, extending nearly the whole 
length of the structure, upon which runs 
a towing-carriage; this spans the tank and 
is operated by means of direct-connected 
motors, each of 50-horsepower, one being 
carried on each of the four carriage trucks. 
The power required is obtained from a sep- 
arate electric plant in the Navy Yard, which 
also runs the model making shop. 

The model, usually about 20 feet in 
length, is put into the water directly beneath 
the towing carriage, to which it is movably 
attached by metal arms arranged at bow 



and stern. The model is also electrically 
connected with the carriage, which carries 
chronographic apparatus for measuring 
speed and force expended; also recording ac- 
tion of the miniature ship of war. 

Models are tested at various speeds and 
these differ according to ship lines and 
amount of resistance against the water. The 
speed runs as high as six knots, correspond- 
ing to 27 knots for the ship at sea; but the 
average is about four knots, about one- 
fourth of the speed of the ship. The car- 
riage runs very smoothly and can be speed- 
ed if necessary at the rate of 20 knots per 
hour. 

The value of the information obtained by 
the Government from model testing more 
than offsets the considerable expense thus 
incurred. By this work the Navy Depart- 
ment not only secures an excellent idea of 
the capabilities of the proposed new ship, 
but it can use this data to advantage in mak- 
ing contracts with ship builders in the par- 
ticular of required speed, etc. And with the 
builder there is no guess work; with the ship 
plans drawn to the smallest detail, and, if 
necessary, corrected from model tests, he 
follows instructions, and is carefully fol- 
lowed in his operations by the Government's 
expert who keeps track of every particular 
of the work. 



The only woman "sword fisher" known, is 
Mrs. Jno. Latham, of Noank, Conn., where 
she and her husband reside during the win- 
ter months. She saved the life of her hus- 
band recently when attacked by a monster 
sword fish. The Lathams have a sloop 
which is used for sword fishing only. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



241 



Liquid Fuel Pumped to BattlesKip While 

in Motion 




Pumping Oil to a Battlesbip Wbile ix\ Motion 



The English navy has been experiment- 
ing witli oiling battleships -svliile they are 
still maintaining their maximum speed. The 
tests were A-ery satisfactory, indeed. 

The battleship tooli the oil vessel in tow 
with a 6%-inch wire hawser. From a 
lighter wire was suspended 200 yards of 
6-inch wire hose fastened to the wire every 
six feet. The hose was fixed to the net 
shelf and then taken to the connection on 
the ship's side. The battleships "Hannibal" 
and "Mars," with which the experiment was 
tried, each carry 190 tons of liquid fuel, 



and this amount was pumped in six hours, 
the speed of the vessel being retarded but 
one knot. Another great advantage of this 
arrangement is that it can be used in any 
and all kinds of weather. 

The German iieet is resorting to oil in in- 
creasing degi'ee for firing purposes, it is 
stated. All German battleships burn both 
oil and coal, and several oil-tank vessels 
have been ordered constructed for the use 
of the fleet, as their use is said to greatly 
fncilitate filling the war vessels' oil tanks, 
and to be more cleanly than coal bunkers. 



$10,000 FOR WINNER OF OCEAN RACE. 



There is soon to be a race across the 
Atlantic between motor launches, and the 
winner (if he succeeds in getting across 
alive) will receive a prize of $10,000 which 
has been offered by M. Charley, a rich 
French sportsman. The contesting launches 
will be 65 feet or less in length and driven 
by gasoline engines. The Shipping World, 
London, says: 

"M. Charley, in response to a wager from 
America, will himself compete with a 65- 
foot boat. It is interesting to note that Mr. 
Edge is experiencing in his 65-foot cruiser 
the same trouble as has been met in using 
turbines for naval propulsion. Like the tur- 
bine, the internal combustion engine must 
be driven at full power to work satisfac- 



torily. The consequence is that Mr. Edge's 
boat will have three shafts and three en- 
gines. The two outside shafts will each be 
provided with a 150 horsepower engine, and 
the center one will be driven by a 40 horse- 
power oil engine. The idea is that only the 
small engine should be used for slow speeds 
or going alongside, Avhilst for full speed the 
two larger engines would be used, and for 
an extra fast burst all three would be in 
operation. It seems rather a tall order to 
start off across the Atlantic in a 65-foot 
motor boat; of course the boats which have 
entered are not the racing freaks which 
came across the Channel a short time ago; 
but I should at any rate like to feel sure 
that, in the event of the engine stopping, 
the boat could be kept going along with a 
mast and sail." 



242 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



INSTRUMENT PHOTOGRAPHS THE 
TERIOR OF THE HUMAN EYE. 



IN- 



Treatment of diseases of the human eye 
will be greatly facilitated by an instrument 
lately invented by Dr. Walther Thorner of 
the University Eye Clinic at the Royal 




A PHoto^rapK Made 'With the New 
Instrument 

Charite, in Berlin, by means of which good 
photographs may be secured of the inte- 
rior of the human eye. Hitlierto this had 
been impossible because of the difficulty in 
sufficiently illuminating the interior of the 
eye, the strong light and the din-ation of the 
exposure not being endurable by the pa- 
tient. All observations of this part of the 
eye vv^ere made by looking at it through the 
ophthalmoscope, invented by Helmholtz in 
1850. 

The new instrument is a material im- 
provement of the ophthalmoscope. It vs^as 




first used in photographing the eyes of cats 
and then improved and reinforced • until 
adapted to the much darker interior of the 
human eye. By employing a soft light the 
eye is first focussed so that its back is 
clearly Imaged on a photographic plate. 
With the plate in, pressure on a special lever 
opens the camera and an electric spark gen- 
erated in a storage battery ignites a flash- 
light composition, thus lighting up the back- 
ground of the eye so that a good image is 
produced on the plate. 

The new instrument means that diseases 
encroaching upon the eye may be watched 
in each stage, that the progress of the dis- 
ease and the success or non-success of the 
treatment will be apparent at any and all 
times, and that physical differences in eyes 
will be plainly put before the oculist, wlio 
will thus be enabled to profit mankind by 
his observations. Any separate part of the 
interior of the eye may be photographed by 
the new apparatus. 

-*-»-¥■ 

AMERICAN-BUILT SUBMARINE BOATS 
FOR JAPAN. 



PHoto^rapHin^ tHe BacK|^rotind Of 
tHe £ye 



Five submarine boats, superior to those 
owned by any other nation, are now being 
built in this country for the government of 
Japan, though nominally, for the sake of 
neutrality, they are being built for the Hol- 
land Submarine Boat company. 

The boats are 58 feet 9 inches from stem 
to stern, with an extreme width of 11 feet, 
and have a guaranteed speed of from eight 
to ten knots. They have a number of fea- 
tures which make them decidedly superior 
to any others of these craft now in exist- 
ence. They are built of the best steel, rein- 
forced amidships by 10-foot strips of Tobin 
bronze plates l^alf an inch thick, making 
them far less vulnerable if sighted by the 
enemy when on the surface. They are 
equipped with bilge keels, which makes it 
possible for tliem to make long voyages and 
to accompany a fleet to sea without a tow. 
The "Moccasin" and the "Adder," the two 
finest submarine boats in the United States 
navy have a maximum speed of six knots; 
the new boats for Japan not only have a 
higher speed, but can maintain it at a depth 
of 120 feet. Few submarines formerly con- 
structed often dive deeper than 40 feet. 
The greater speed involves a secret method 
of using both electricity and gasoline for 
motor powers, while diving rudders of secret 
design secure the greater powers of sub- 
mersion. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



243 



Aerial Transportation 

Hoiv tt\e TelpHerage System Economizes for tKe Manufact- 
urer — Some Startling Facts and Figures 



The word telpherage, which is derived 
from two Greek words meaning far and to 
carry, has assumed a meaning not included 
in those two words since it has become a 
great, though not widely recognized factor 
in industrial economics. No other word 
comes nearer being synonymous with 
economy than does the word telpherage. It 
means economy of time, economy of labor, 
economy of money. And yet, embracing 
all these advantages— considerations the 
American manufacturer is eternally striv- 
ing for— this wonderfully effective electrical 



operation of the rest of the modernly 
equipped factory, is reduced to its proper 
ratio and fits into the system as nicely as 
the cogs of one wheel engage those of an- 
other. Over a distance of 1,000 feet of 
telpher way, a single telpherman with one 
machine and an assistant can convey 250 
tons per day and should the system be out 
of commission for even an hour, the plant 
during that time is a non-consumer except 
in interest charges. 

Telpherage is best adapted to the action 
of the direct current as it is included in 




This load, with the five men, lifted 50 feet and conveyed 1,000 feet, 
showing massiveness of construction of the conveying and hoisting 
machinery, method of electrical control and brake wheel. 



agent is little appreciated by those it is 
calculated to most benefit. 

Perhaps the greatest claim that can be 
made for telpherage is that while yet em- 
bracing these three great economies, it is 
perfectly flexible, can be adapted to the 
most discouraging conditions without dim- 
inution of its efficiency. If the route of the 
telpher way is rough, and many obstruc- 
tions have been encountei'ed in its construc- 
tion this does not affect traflSc on the aerial 
line when once it is installed. With its use 
the bags, boxes, bales, or barrels which 
once consumed an amount of time, money 
and labor, disproportionate to the rapid 



the "intermittent control" type of electric 
propulsion. 

The telpher line consists of tracks of 
solid steel or steel cable built, usually, 20 
feet or more above the ground. Where 
cables are used they are supported every 
100 feet by means of poles or structures, if 
it is convenient to erect them, and with a 
solid track the supports are placed at from 
16 to 20 feet apart. A telpherage plant 
usually consists of one or more telphers 
with or without trailers, but generally in 
combination with an electric hoist for lift- 
ing and depositing the load; a single or 
double trolley wire above the track for 



244 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



conducting power to the telpher and hoist; 
one or more budgets or carriers for each 
telpher and the controlling switches, con- 
veniently located. The matei'ial to be car- 
ried is suspended underneath the track and 
the carrier may be a large cage of any kind, 
or a truck with wheels for rolling it around 
on the floor. In long spans over river gul- 
lies, canals, railway tracks, etc., steel cable 
is invariably used instead of the steel 
track. When this is the case C-shaped 
wroiight-iron hangers, having an upper 



supported every 15 to 25 feet, and the trol- 
ley wire, which is above the tracks on the 
outside, is inclosed in a conduit to guard 
against fire and runs alongside the track 
on the inside. 

The telpher is, in other terms, an electric 
locomotive of the very simplest construc- 
tion. If the load is of such nature that 
all its weight is pendant from one point 
as in conveying coal, a follow wheel is at- 
tached to the telpher frame and for distrib- 
uted loads a two-wheel trailer is attached 




Taking- freight from or lowering to fhe side ports of a steamboat. 
In unloading, the material i.'? raised and then conveyed any rea- 
sonable distance. Load, 6.000 pounds; speed of hoisting, 60 feet; 
speed of travel, 1,000 feet per minute. Independent of fall of 
tide. Track can be extended so as to take load directly to or 
from barges or floats. In one telpherage installation one man 
replaces sixteen. 



grasp on a stout suspension cable and a 
lower clutch on a 3-foot beveled shield into 
which the running cable is sunk, support 
the running cable between posts. This 
tightens the suspension cable so that exces- 
sive sagging of the running cable under a 
load is prevented and also maintains the 
latter at a slight elevation so that the track 
is level when the telpher crosses the shields. 
This suspension is used in all cable in- 
stallations and over rivers oft-times triple 
or quadruple suspensions are required and 
high structural steel towers at either shore 
provide the necessary suspension dip. The 
tracks inside buildings are solid steel, 



by a connecting rod. The trailer is always 
used where a telpherman travels with the 
load. 

The hoist is suspended below the tel- 
pher, or sometimes from a trailer drawn 
by the telpher. Special attention has been 
paid in the later designs of hoists to use 
as little headroom as possible. Formerly 
the telpher and hoist were combined, but 
experience has shown that it is better to 
make the telpher and hoist two separate 
pieces of apparatus. It is composed of a 
double gear, a worm and drum, and comes 
very near being a direct-connected appli- 
ance when in position on the telpher. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



245 



There are three types of telpherage — au- 
tomatic, semi-automatic and non-automatic. 
In automatic control of telpherage it is pos- 
sible for the operator to start the machine 
by means of its controller located at some 
fixed point and it will whizz along its track 
to the other end, automatically deposit its 
load, reverse its direction and return for 
another load. This is accomplished by the 
use of an electrically-operated switch work- 
ing in conjunction with the controller. In 
ordinary c'ectric railway practice four wires 
are required in reversing each motor, but 
only two trolley Avires are used in the en- 
tire operation described above. In the 
method of hoist operation each machine is 



The motor would be reversed by the cut-off, 
of course, but all that is necessary, should 
the operator wish the load to go higher, 
is simply to turn on the power again and 
again cut off, and when the power is again 
turned on the elevating is resumed. Thi;^ 
method is also used in operating the tel- 
pher and in the control of semi-automatic 
telpherage. 

The semi-automatic line may be controlled 
by a man in a small house on the trestle, 
Avho, when the buclvet is filled, throws on 
his hoist switch, and when the load is at 
the height desired opens the telpher switch 
and the machine runs down tlie line. Some- 
times such lines are automatic after the 





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The telpher crosses the river, 50 feet above it, on a steel bridge, and 
enters the mill at the third floor. 



supplied with a small cylinder switch which 
a solenoid, working against a spring, ma- 
nipulates. In lifting a load power is in- 
fused through a stationary switch located 
at any point on the line, thus energizing 
the solenoid of the automatic switch and 
putting a tension on the spring. The sole- 
noid is then de-energized, and the released 
spring rotates a cylinder which changes the 
various connections and so reA^erses the mo- 
tor. The operator can cut off the power 
at any point in the hoisting and so stop 
the load, for all breaking of the current 
is done at the stationary controller and 
never at the cylinder switch on the hoist. 



hoisting is accomplished, the telpher being 
started by the hoist clutch contact opening 
the switch, after which the automatic 
working is as previously described. The 
operator can stop the load at any point, 
and if an automatic device for dumping 
is supplied the load is dumped there. 

Of the three types of telpherage, how- 
ever, the non-automatic, where the telpher- 
man travels with his load, controlling 
every movement of the machine is much 
more commonly employed. In such case 
the telpherman may be his own loader, un- 
loader, bolster, conveyor and depositor at 
one or many points along a line, and can 



246 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



keep intelligent account of his receipts and 
deliveries. Mr. C. J. Messer of the United 
Telpherage Company, describes such a tel- 
pherage installation in New England, 
where cases of goods are cai'ried between 
two buildings 1,200 feet apart. A pendant 
attachment permits the telpherman to lower 
himself 40 feet inside the building. Trap 
doors in floors permit his loading or un- 




The telpher with its load rounding a difficult curve. 



loading at any particular floor. If out of 
doors he loads and unloads from projecting 
platforms at each floor of the building. 
This transportation formerly kept three 
teams, and two men with each team em- 
ployed. The cases were conveyed from the 
ground floor to the place requii'ed by ele- 
vator, each round trip requiring 20 min- 
utes. The telpherman's trip takes but one 
minute. 

In regular service the speed of the tel- 
pher varies from 300 to 800 feet per 
minute up to 20 miles per hour, or 
even more, when required. The slower 
speeds are used when the lines are 
short and where there are many curves, 
particularly for factory and foundry work. 



Grades are easily surmounted, the highest 
grade met in actual practice thus far being 
a 12 per cent rise. To carry half a ton 
on a level track at a speed of six miles per 
hour, much loss? than a horsepower of en- 
ergy, including all losses, the actual figures 
being one-sixth horsepower, is required. 
This amount increases considerably with 
grades, and on very steep grades gears are 
used to avoid employing 
very heavy motors. Tlie 
number of telphers used may 
be increased indefinitely up 
to the full number the tracks 
will hold. 

At Milton, Mass., there was 
recently installed a telpher- 
age line a sixth of a mile 
long for conveying material 
from a railway storehouse 
to a mill. Before the telpher 
line was in operation all the 
raw stock had been trucked 
by teams to the works over 
a long, circuitous route and 
was then carried by eleva- 
tors to an upper floor of the 
mill. This involved a great 
deal of labor as well as a 
large number of teams and 
much time. The new tel- 
pherage plant takes the loads 
directly from the top floor of 
the railway storehouse and 
conveys them by the shortest 
possible route to the third 
floor of the mill. 

The construction of this 
line involved some very diffi- 
cult engineering. The only 
piece of level ground on the 
whole route was 60 feet be- 
yond the storehouse. The 
track then turns a 90° curve of 40-foot 
radius and passes along the side of a rocky, 
precipitous cliff at the foot of which is a 
swift running river. On the rocky ledge of 
the river bank it turns another 90° curve, 
this one of 20-foot radius, passing over the 
roof of a house in turning the curve. The 
track then crosses the river, 50 feet above 
it, on a steel bridge, and enters the mill 
at the third floor. The construction of the 
steel bridge over the river presented the 
most difficult conditions. 

On the level ground the track is sup- 
ported by A bents 35 feet above the ground, 
resting on concrete foundations'. Along 
the rocky cliffs huge supports of Georgia 
pine 14 inches square and from 30 to 40 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



247 



feet long were used, the 
foundations for which were 
cut out of the slanting side 
of the solid rock. These sup- 
ports are braced by heavy 
timbers in the shape of a 
figure 4, also anchored back 
in the solid rock. A single 
one of these posts weighs 
"over a ton and a half. The 
steel bridge which spans 
the river carrying the track 
beneath it rests at one end 
on a tower supported by con- 
crete foundation piers. The 
distance from this tower to 
the wall of the mill is 80 feet. 

The telpher, or electric lo- 
comotive in this plant, runs 
on top of the single overhead 
rail and is controlled by an 
operator, seated in an en- 
closed cab which is sus- 
pended from the telpher di- 
rectly underneath the track. 
The operator has his con- 
troller, which is exactly like 
the ordinary trolley car con- 
troller now being used on all 
electric cars at one hand, and 




Along the side of a rocky, precipitous cliff, at the foot of 

which is a swift river. 



at the other hand is a powerful brake wheel, 
which applies the brakes simultaneously to 
the telpher and all of the trailers which 
carry the trucks so suspended beneath them, 
so the whole train can be stopped within its 
own length. Current is supplied to the tel- 
pher through trolley wires, being taken off 
by a trolley pole. 

At the storehouse bags of raw material 
weighing 200 pounds each are loaded on 
trucks of 2,000 pounds capacity. The 
weight of the machine is 4,600 pounds, and 
with the three loaded trucks, the total mov- 
ing load on the structure is 12,000 pounds 
suspended .50 feet in the air along the 
rocky cliff and over the water. The train 
is 30 feet long and the average speed is 
about 700 feet per minute. 

The loaded trucks? are pushed underneath 
the machine and the hooks attached. The 
operator raises the trucks several inches 
clear of the floor, then starts the telpher 
with its load of three trucks of 2,000 
pounds each, and in three-quarters of a 
minute has passed by the precipitous cliff 
and across the river, and has landed his 
load of 6,000 pounds(three tons)on the third 
floor of the mill. The three loaded trucks 



are unhooked from the machine and pushed 
out of the way and three empty ones are 
hooked on in their place in less than a 
minute's time, and the operator is on his 
way back to the storehouse, where three 
more loaded trucks are awaiting him. The 
round trip has not taken three minutes. 

By the use of this telpherway one man 
at $2.00 per day does in a day as much work 
as was formerly done by many men and 
teams. The cost of the power consumed 
by the telpher in operation for 10 hours 
does not amount to $1.00. Up to a 12-horse- 
power requirement, a gas engine consum- 
ing a few cents' worth of fuel per hour 
and a direct-connected generator will suf- 
fice for ordinary telpherage installations. 

Mr. Messer describes conditions which 
have come under his immediate observa- 
tion, and which telpherage is designed to 
economically replace. He says: 

"Recently I stood forty minutes to ob- 
serve the movement of five cases of fin- 
ished cloth from a packing-room to a store- 
house. In the operation six men and two 
horses were employed. Three men ended 
the cases upon a truck and wheeled them 
to the elevator; then a drop was made to 



248 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the ground floor. The combined effort of 
five men was used in getting the cases 
from the elevator to the platform of a 
dray. A driver handled the ribbons vrhile 
the load was moving the 600 feet to the 
storehouse, the five lumpers being part 
of the load; then, at the other end of the 
line, the six men were required in the 
unloading of the dray and the conveying 
to another elevator, which in two loads 
took the material to the second story of 
the storehouse, where men, not accounted 
for in the illustration, loaded it again and 
wheeled it to its resting-place. 

"It was rather a singular analogy that 
inside the buildings of the various depart- 
ments of the manufacturing plant expen- 
sive machinery was being driven to its ut- 
most capacity that the cost of production 
should be reduced, while here was at least 
240 minutes of manual and animal labor 
expended in a simple problem of convey- 
ing. The cost of this operation, not includ- 
ing time of horse, interest on horse, wagon, 
harness, etc., was at least 60 cents. 

"I will tell you what that 240 minutes 
was worth to the manager of that manu- 
facturing plant and to his stockholders, if 
an equally careful surveillance had been ex- 
ercised in indoor and out-of-door economics. 

"Fifty cases of the same weight could 
have been transported between the same 
discharging and receiving points, the en- 
ergy employed being a telpher outfit, a tel- 
pherman and a helper, and the entire cost, 
reckoning interest on plant, depreciation, 
power and wages, would be less than $1. 
I would like some mathematician to figure 
the loss in capital energy by reason of the 
cited carelessness on the transportation side 
of production." 

In decided contrast to this Mr. Messer 
presents another picture: 

"A 10-horsepower gas engine is furnish- 
ing electric power for the lifting of a 3,000- 
pound telpherage load at a speed of 60 
feet per minute, and a horizontal run at 
a rate of 1,000 feet per minute, at an ex- 
pense of 30 pounds of coal per lifting horse- 
power hour, and 12 pounds for the horizontal 
horsepower hour. During a recent test of 
eight and one-half hours' continual running 
in a ten-hour day, one-twelfth of the time 
was occupied in the lift, ten-twelfths in 
the horizontal run and a twelfth was lost 
in the changing of loads. The average per 
hour consumption of coal in the horse- 
power working hours involved in the prob- 
lem was 13 7-10 pounds, or an actual power 
expense of 30 cents for the day's work." 

In addition to the telpher lines we have 



already described there is what is called, 
technically, a space-covering tra«k. It is a 
section of track placed between two side 
tracks, much in the way of a crane, except 
that the telpher passes upon the side rails 
across this immovable track to the other 
side. This enables goods to be raised from 
any portion of a floor or yard without 
switches or a multiplicity of tracks. 

No other form of freight transportation 
is of more practical value to the manufac- 
turer than this, which no known power 
save electricity could have made possible. 

♦-•-# 

OPENED A BANK VAULT BY ELEC- 
TRICITY. 



The combination of the vault of the 
Franklin Savings Bank, in Boston, refused to 
work a short time ago, and when every 
other means failed electricity was resorted 
to. The electrical experts were provided 
with a detailed plan of the bank and began 
operations during the night. 

They made an electrical connection be- 
tween a carbon and the wires of the power 
company outside the bui:ding, and with a 
1,500-ampere current began to melt a hole 
through the door. The electricians were 
obliged to wear thick dark glasses because 
of the intense light made by the white hot 
carbon. Inside two and one-half hours a 
hole had been bored through the two and 
one-half inches of iron, when operations 
were suspended. Next morning the edge of 
a bolt on the inner surface of the door was 
chipped off by steel instruments and the 
door at last swung open. 



LATEST FOOTBALL ARMOR. 



Much like a knight of old now sallies 
forth the football player to battle for his 
college colors. The lat- 
est in this line is a 
patent football pants and 
suit. The garment is 
padded with felt at all 
points where protection 
is most needed. There 
are five grades ranging 
from army duck to ex- 
pensive moleskin of the 
best quality obtainable. 
The pants and jacket are 
connected by an elastic belt which permits 
of free movement of the body. The pads 
have a great advantage over the old style 
which had a tendency to move out of place 
just when they were most needed. 




ENCYCLOPEDIA 249 

Bucket Tram^ray in Moimtains of WasKing(toii 



Unicfue Conveyor a 



Mile Loxi^— Descends 
Self-Propelling 



1,700 Feet— l! 



If some of the wheat grown in our great 
western fields could tell the story of its 
journey from the field across the country, 
through the vortex of the Chicago market 
and on across the ocean to the masses in 
Europe whose food supply annually depends 
on the American product, no doubt some 
strange methods of transportation would go 
on record, but no chapter would be stranger 
than the method by which it was conveyed 
from the big warehouses built at the top of 
river bluffs down those bluffs to the vessels 
waiting below. 

AVhen one thinks of the enormous product, 
the words "bucket tramway" convey an idea 
of an apparatus wholly inadequate to handle 
any great proportion of that product, and 
yet, far from being an insignificant appara- 
tus, along the river bluffs of the great North- 
west these bucket tramways convey hun- 
dreds of thousands of bushels of wheat 
every grain season, saving the farmers 
far around miles of hauling over rugged 
roads and rolling country. 

One of these tramways is in operation at 
Wawawai. ^\'ashington, on tlie Snake river, 
carrying great quantities of grain down the 
steep bluffs of that river, a distance of 5.150 
feet, from an altitude of 1,700 feet, to the 
warehouse and the steamers at the foot of 
the bluff. 

Two immense warehouses were construct- 
ed, one at the top of the bluff and one on 
the bank of the stream, and between these 
operates the tramway. It consists of a 
strong steel wire cable, capable of support- 
ing a very heavj' strain. This endless cable 
is nearly two miles long, and is supported 
at frequent intervals, each support having 
a lubricated iron pulley, over which the 
cable runs. Strung along the cable at inter- 
vening distances of 80 feet are carriers, 
each capable of holding a sack of wheat. 
There are 128 of these carriers, so that 64 
are constantly descending to the lower 
warehouse loaded, while 64 others are as- 
cending to the upper warehouse to be re- 
loaded. 

This unique contrivance is operated by 
gravity, without the aid of any other power. 
At the upper terminal of the tramway is a 
large cast-iron wheel, 8 feet in diameter and 
supplied with a patent rachet grip, through 



which wheel the cable passes. A smooth 
band-iron grip-brake regulates the speed. 




Conveying Wheat Down The Mountain 

The construction at the lower terminal is 
the same. When in operation a man at the 
brake lever controls the entire tramway at 
all times. The sacks of grain are placed in 
the carriers as they pass, the loaded carriers 



250 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



keeping the cable runninj?, and down the 
side of tlie rugged, towering blulifs are con- 
tinually passing the bags of good grain. 
The carriers are unloaded in the tower of 
the lower warehouse, and from thence the 
grain is carried in chutes to any section of 
the huge building desired, or, perchance, to 
the steamer in waiting. 

■This tramway can easily convey 200 tons 
of grain in ten hours, and during a grain 
season frequently handles from 75,000 to 
80,000 sacks of wheat. The farmers for 
miles around haul their grain there, as it 
saves them trips of from fifteen to twenty- 
five miles to the nearest railway station. 



COMBINATION LOCOMOTIVE CAR. 



Will Be Tested on the Glasgow & South- 
western Railroad 



With a view of securing more frequent 
service by running single cars instead of 
trains, James Manson, superintendent of 



the guard and driver. Hand and vacuum 
brakes, which can be operated from either 
end of the vehicle, are fitted to each bogie, 
and in addition the steam whistle can be 
sounded from the guard's compartment. 
■» « » 

ELECTRIC VS. STEAM LOCOMOTIVE. 



Will the electric railway replace the 
steam locomotive? 

Perhaps the best answer is that its fu- 
ture is not in the wholesale destruction of 
existing great systems. It is in the develop- 
ment of a field of its own, with recognized 
limitations, but of vast possibilities. It will 
fill that field to the practical exclusion of all 
other methods of transmitting energy; it 
will operate all street railway systems, and 
elevated and underground roads; it will 
prove a valuable auxiliary to ti'unk sys- 
tems, but it has not yet sounded the death- 
knell of the locomotive any more than the 
dynamo has that of the stationary steam 
engine. Each has its own legitimate field, 







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steam Motor Carriage for Local Traffic on the Glaegow and SontbweBtern Railway 



motive power on the Glasgow & Southwest- 
ern, has designed the novel combination 
shown in the illustration. Page's Weekly, 
Loiiflon, says: 

The car, which is 60 feet 8 inches long 
o^■er the buffers, is divided into three pas- 
senger compartments, and a special com- 
partment for the steam motor; the one at 
the rear is a guard's compartment, the two 
adjoining being reserved for passengers. 
At the guard's compartment, steps are pro- 
vided to enable passengers ^to enter from 
the road level, and these are so arranged 
that they can be brought into use by actu- 
ating a lever in the guard's compartment. 
Seating accommodation is provided for fifty 
passengers of one class, the seats being so 
arranged that there is a free passage from 
end to end- of the car. Electrical communi- 
cation is provided for the convenience of 



which will play its proper part in the needs 
of all civilization.— Frank J. Sprague, Inter- 
national Electrical Congress. 

"» * » 

OIL PRODUCTION THE PAST YEAR. 



The total value of raw petroleum pro- 
duced in the United States last year was 
$94,694,050. Ohio led with $23,515,140; 
West Virginia, Pennsylvania and Indiana 
followed in the order named. Texas and 
California each produced over $7,000,000. 
During the year 18,880 wells were drilled, 
of which 4,650 were dry; these wells cost 
$26,402,000. The exports of petroleum and 
its manufactured products were $72,628,- 
539, an increase in value, but a decrease in 
quantity as compared with the preceding 
year. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

"Bends" or the Caisson Disease 



251 



Men Who MTorR in Compressed Air Suffer A.^oiiies— Many 
DeatKs Result— Science Investigates the Cause 



In sinking tlie foundations of bridges, or 
in any work which must be done on the 
bed of the sea or of a river, the men work 
in a caisson, or large steel cylinder, which 
is sunk in the water, the water being kept 
out of it by means of compressed air. The 
bottom of the caisson is open, but the top is 
closed and men and materials enter through 
an air-lock, a chamber in the top of the 
caisson, whicli is fitted with airtight doors 
and cocks. By means of these cocks the 
air in the caisson is compressed or decom- 
pressed as reciuired and at any rate desired. 
The large cock is used for rapid decompres- 
sion during the passage of materials, but 
witli men there is a deadly menace in rapid 
decompression, especially if they have been 
in the caisson some time or have been 
working under great pressure. Therefore a 
small coclv is provided for slowly decom- 
pressing humans, though often the work- 
men are in such a hurry to get home that 
they scorn the dangers and make use of 
the large cock in order to get out of the 
air-lock quickly. 

The men are never taken ill while under 
pressure, but often shortly after decom- 
pression some poor fellow is seized with 
terrible muscular pains, with cramps, his 
skin becomes icy cold and he breathes with 
difficulty; sometimes the pains in his limbs 
are sharp and shooting so that he is un- 
able to walk and suffers agonies. Such cases 
generally recover in a short time, though 
they are apt to suffer again in a similar 
manner if they go back to the caisson; in 
fact, in severe cases, the employers, fearing 
the employes will die in a second attack, dis- 
charge them. Again, a laborer who has 
been decompressed perhaps an hour before, 
suddenly falls unconscious and lies a cold, 
livid, inert mass. Some parts of his body 
are sure to be paralyzed, the pulse is irreg- 
ular, the heart-beats scarcelj^ audible, the 
pupils of the eyes do not move. Perhaps 
the attending physician tries bleeding the 
patient; his blood is black. Such a case 
is inevitably followed by death. This ter- 
rible disease, which men brave in order to 
earn bread for their families and them- 
selves, is known among workmen as the 
"bends" and among physicians and scien- 
tists as the "caisson disease." 

The construction of every bridge where 



the caisson is used for the foundation work 
adds to the list of those who die or suffer 
from tliis disease. At Brooklyn" Bridge there 
were 110 cases of illness with three deaths; 
while sinking the foundation of the Eads 
bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis, 
of 600 workmen there were 133 who suf- 
fered from bends in varying degree, of 
v/hom 14 died. Of 64 men employed in a 
caisson on the banks' of the Loire, 25 had 
bends, 16 having serious attacks and two 
dying. This latter instance occurred as far 
back as 1854, but time has not bettered con- 
ditions, nor removed the cause. The follow- 
ing paragraph which appeared in one of our 
reliable newspapers during the present year 
repeats the story: 

NEW YORK, —That fourteen men 

have been killed in the new Manhattan bridge 
caisson within fourteen da.ys was learned today 
during a discussion by several British engineers, 
who were inspecting the south tunnel under the 
Hudson river. The deaths have been kept quiet, 
as it is hard to get men to work in the caisson. 
Death in every ease was due to the caisson dis- 
ease, paralysis resulting from working in the 
high pressure chambers. 

These are terrible statistics for this day 
and age, and engineers, contractors, scien- 
tists, physicians, men of prominence every- 
where are taking note of the fact and in- 
vestigating it. Even the lawyers are inter- 
ested, as it presents opportunities for end- 
less litigation. 

For every 33 feet of depth that the cais- 
son is sunk in water, -flS pounds pressure 
to the square inch or +1 atmosphere is 
required to keep the water out of the cais- 
son. Therefore if the depth were 100 feet, 
the pressure would be 45 pounds to the 
square inch. The effects upon the system 
while under pressure are all of a minor 
character, more of the nature of inconven- 
ience than of injury. The pressure has no 
mechanical effect on the circulation. It 
causes pains in the tympanic membrane, 
which are relieved by opening the Eusta- 
chian tube, the pulse and the respiration are 
slower and there is a feeling of resistance to 
movement, due to the density of the atmos- 
phere. One cannot whisper under pressure, 
and if he whistles he can hear no sound. 

An old Scotchman who worked in one 
of the IBlackwall tunnel caissons where the 



252 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



pressure was as high as 37 pounds to the 
square inch gives a graphic account of how 
he felt while inside the caisson: 

"We stayed in for eight hours at a shift. 
We had half an hour for dinner, but some 
of the men would not come out for it. 
They took it inside with them. Coming 
out again it was not so bad, but just chilly; 
bitter chilly, cold as charity. The pains 
would come on afterward, in an hour or 
so, or wlien you got into bed. Bends in 
the back, and the wrists, and the legs; just 
awful. Men would turn out in the middle 
of the night and come back to the works 
and get into the compressed air again in 
the medical locks. They had a full dose 
of it for a start, and let the pressure drop 
gradually. Then they went back home to 
bed. Do them any good? Eh, mon, it's 
no for me to say. They said so, but I 
thought it was only humbug, a faith 
dodge. When I had bends I just jumped 
about and took a drap of guid Avhuskey. 

"I never felt happier than when I was in 
the compressed air. Always happy, and on 
the cheery side. Why, laddie, I would get 
up in the morning feeling very dour and 
queer, and just go into the workings, and 
then whistle and sing all day long. Not 
that you could hear the whistling, at least 
a man with my lungs, when the pressiTre 
was over twenty-five. 

"The worst thing that could happen Avas 
for the electric light to fail. Then they 
burnt candles, and the mixture of smoke 
with the air gave them 'bends' of an ex- 
tra special vigor. You nodded and didn't 
care if you went to sleep forever, though it 
was all very nice and dreamy. When I 
was alone in that 'casoon' I had to rope 
myself up lest I should fall asleep and 
tumble to the bottom, 60 feet below. It 
was better under the river than in the 
'casoons,' because under the river the air 
could escape into the Thames. Tobacco 
had no sting. The only stuff that had any 
flavor was four-ale. You weren't allowed 
to take it in, but you did. But jon had to 
take the cork out first. If you didn't the 
bottle would burst. The finest men in the 
tunnel were the first to be knocked out. 
The men of delicate appearance stood the 
pressure best." 

The results of a thorough investigation of 
this subject made by Leonard Hill, M. B., 
F. R. S., lecturer on physiology at the Lon- 
don Hospital, and J. J. R. Macleod, M. B., 
professor of physiology at the Western Re- 
serve University, Ohio, was re<;ently pub- 
lished in the Journal of Hygiene, 



These authorities declare that the cause 
of the caisson disease is the escape of gas 
bubbles in the blood vessels and tissue 
fluids on decompression. These air bubbles 
coalesce and increase in size and, flowing 
on with the blood, gather at all the high 
points, just as in a pipe system, and there 
remain until forced at a gulp toward the 
heart. If sufficient time is taken in decom- 
pressing the men thej^ do not suffer from 
bends, but the length of time of decompres- 
sion must vary with the length of the shift. 
The disease has a wide variety of symp- 
toms: pains in tlie limbs, vertigo, nose- 
bleed, embarrassed respiration, hemor- 
rhages, intense cold due to the expansion 
of the air, loss of muscular power, paralysis, 
some cases even have become disabled for 
life, amputations of limbs being necessary. 
Diver's sickness comes under the same class. 

Is it at all strange that caissoniers are 
hard to get? But there is a means of pre- 
venting this terrible disease that maims, dis- 
ables and destroys. The first step rests with 
the employer himself. Let him see that the 
airlocks on caissons have adjustable locked 
escape valves so that the men cannot get 
out in less than sufficient time for decom- 
pression. Let him see that the time of de- 
compression does vary with the depth of ex- 
cavation, and the pressure of air and let 
him make sure the shifts are not too long. 

Men not older than from 20 to 25, small, 
spare, and totally absteminous, should be 
employed. It is no place for old or fat men. 
After a test at low pressure all who suffer 
from symptoms should be discharged. The 
longer the shift, the greater is the satura- 
tion of the body fluids with gas, and the 
slower therefore should be the decompres- 
sion. The higher the pressure, the shorter 
should be the shift, and the longer the de- 
compression period. For a pressure of 
+2 or 30 pounds the shift should be four 
hours and the decompression period from 3'0 
minutes to one liour; for a pressure of +6 to 
7, or 90 to 105 pounds, about a 45-minute shift 
and a decompression period of two hours. 
The decompression chamber should be arti- 
ficially warmed and the temperature not al- 
lowed to fall below 60 degrees F.; ventila- 
tion should be thorough during decompres- 
sion. The caisson should also be freely 
ventilated and kept at a temperature of 60 
degrees F. The men should remain quiet 
for an hour after decompression and if 
symptoms appear should be hurriedly re^ 
compressed- If t^iese v^les were followed 
strictly it is safe to say that there woul^ 
be f^W fatalities from this ^i^^^se. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



i>53 



TALL BETON AND STEEL LIGHTHOUSE 
ERECTED BY RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. 



A recent consular report declares that 
beton is believed by German contractors 
and manufacturers to be the coming build- 
ing material, in that it is cheap, durable 
and the least susceptible to fire of all build- 
ing materials now in use. Beton is not, how- 
ever, a new building material. It was in- 
vented by M. Coignet, a Frenchman, who 
spent many years experimenting with it, 
and some of the most interesting exhibits 
at the Paris Exposition in 1867 were of this 
artificial stone. 

It is so much lilce concrete that it is often 
confused with that stone. Beton, however, 
is composed of from four to five parts of 
clean silicons sand, neither too fine nor too 
coarse, one part of either common or hy- 
draulic lime and hydraulic cement, one- 
fourth to three-fourths of one part in vol- 
ume. These solids are thoroughly mixed 
v,'ith just enough water to convert them 
into a stiff, viscous paste, so that every 
grain of sand or gravel is coated with a 
thin film of paste, and is then rammed into 
moulds with heavy iron pestles. It is an 
artificial stone of great strength and hard- 
ness and has been in the past used exten- 
sively in submarine works. Its great prop- 
erty is that it successfully resists the sol- 
vent action of the salts and certain gases 
contained in sea water, and is not injured 
by climatic influences and changes. For 
instance, freezing serves only to detach a 
thin scale from its outer surfaces, leaving 
it slightly rough and somewhat unsightly, 
but otherwise perfectly capable of holding 
its own for long years against storm and 
tide. 

The first important lighthouse to be con- 
structed of beton and steel has just been 
completed by the Russian government at 
the entrance of the canal which connects 
the fort and naval base of Nikolaev with 
the Black sea. This lighthouse is 132 feet, 
2 inches high above the ground, and one of 
the strongest in the world. It is parabo- 
loidal in form and rests upon a massive 
base of beton 19 feet, 8 inches in diameter, 

7 feet, 2 inches high, encased in steel, cov- 
ered on the outside with beton and buried 
in the ground to a depth of 8 feet, 2 inches. 
At the base the lighthouse tower is 20 feet, 

8 inches in diameter, and 6 feet, 6% inches 
in diameter at the crown. 

The coating of beton on the tower walls 
is comparatively thin, at the base being 



only 7% inches thick; at a height of 40 
feet, 5% inches thick, and at the top 3% 
inches thick. The great strength of the 
tower depends not on the beton, but on the 
steel frame which the beton encases and 
protects from corrosion. This is composed 
of transverse and longitudinal steel bars 




Beton and Steel Iiighthouse Erected by Russia 

nearly an inch in diameter, the transverse 
bars being in circular sections and sunk 
into the beton to a depth of 1.18 inches. 
The bars are closer together towards the 
base than at the top; Figs. 3 and 4 show 
the manner in which they are joined. 

At the top of the tower there is a large 
room which serves as a storehouse and 
also for the keepers to keep watch from. 
Above this room is the lantern tower and 
the whole is surmounted by a cupola. 

The total weiglit of the lighthouse, in- 
cluding the filling of beton in the massive 
foundation is estimated at only 507 tons, its 
cost was but $6,270 and the time required 
for constructing but two months. 

The superiority of this construction for 
such purposes is being widely discussed. 



254 



ENCY(U. OPEDIA 



Beton is muc-h more generally used than 
hitherto for public buildings and even resi- 
dences. One of the most important works 
in ^Yhich it has been used is a section 37 
miles long of the Vanne acqueduct for sup- 
plying water to Paris. This aqueduct passes 
through miles of the Fontainebleau forest 
and comprises from two and one-half to 
three miles of arches, some of which are 
50 feet high; eleven miles of tunnels and 
eight or ten bridges of spans from 75 to 100 
feet,, 

The cost of this artificial stone varies 
with the cost of lime, but all the substances 
used in it are so generally obtainable that 
iu almost any country it is comparatively 
ch^ap. 

» « » 

BEST FLOUR FROM MIXED WHEAT. 



A DESK FOR A CHILD. 



In flour mills one grade alone of wheat 
is seldom vised, but a process of what is 
termed blending is resorted to. This has 
heretofore been accomplished by elevating 
the various grades of grain into bins, from 
Avhich it runs down in spouts. By opening 
and closing these spouts the proportion of 
the several grades is secured. A machine 




Autcmatie Wheat Blender 

lias now been devised for blending which 
can be adjusted to a nicety. 

The machine is very simple iu construc- 
tion ana consists of a cylinder with com- 
partments of different sizes fed by drawing 
a slide over each. In this manner the flow 
of the grain is regulated and the amount 
going to each compartment can be accu- 
rately adjusted. It is operated by gravity.- 



Many fishermen are using graphite for 
polishing their lines. It renders the lines 
more impervious to water and greatly fa- 
cilitates the movement of a line in casting. 



The little desk shown in the illustration 
is just high enough for a child when seated 
in its chair to draw over its lap and rest 
slate or book upon. It is an exceedingly 
comfortable piece of furniture for the tot 
who has just started to school and spends 




^ 



Child's Desk 

many minutes laboriously trying to write. 
All materials for such a desk could be 
found in most homes. It is made of three 
pieces of board, a molding for the front, 
and tlie top covered with cretonne put on 
with brass-headed tacks. The sides may 
be stained and so made much more at- 
tractive. 

^ * » 

HIGH SPEED REQUIRES SINGLE CARS. 



German engineers liave decided that very 
high speed must be made by single cars; 
there is too much danger of the trailer 
jumping even a straight track. The power 
required makes the service expensive. Who 
would think that the soft balmy air of a 
June morning would alone offer a resistance 
requiring 1,100 horsepower in addition to 
the 200 horsepower necessary to propel one 
car when moving at 120 miles an hour. 
Such, however, is the carefully made record 
of the celebrated experiments with an elec- 
tric car at Zossen. A standard gauge elec- 
tric surface line is to be built connecting 
Berlin and Hamburg, a distance of 160 miles. 
Tlie trip will be made in two hours. 

The Wall Street Journal says: "There 
will continue to be a tendency toward heav- 
ier coaclies so long as trains run on present 
track. Tlie lateral oscillation of wheel 
flanges and tlie tendency to lift the train 
free of these flanges when passing over ir- 
regular track at great speed are objection- 
able." 

The Railway Age says: "As the schedule 
speed increases, the weight of train and tlie 
number of cars decrease, and it is not pos- 
sible to haul present trains of eight or ten 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



255 



Pullman cars at sustained speeds of 65 or 
70 miles per hour with either steam or elec- 
tric locomotives. Electric traction at a 
speed exceeding 100 miles per hour will 
probably be with a single car, and such a 
car with motors sufficient for the purpose, 
and capacity for the necessary number of 
passengers to make it profitable, will be 
heavy enough to hold itself down to the 
track of regular gauge, and it will not be 
necessary to resort to the more expensive 
construction required for the mono-rail." 



ENGLAND 



GOATS ON ARIZONA RANGES. 



Goat raising is on the increase on the 
ranges of Arizona, says a bulletin recently 
issued by the Bureau of Plant Industry. 
The carrying capacity of Arizona range 
lauds are stated to vary from one bovine 
to 50 acres to one to 100 acres. Goats on 



ENCOURAGES 
GROWING. 



COTTON 



England is making extraordinary efforts 
toward the promotion of cotton cultivation 
in the West Indies. Four thousand acres 
are to be planted with cotton in the Wind- 
ward and Leeward Islands and Barbados. 
Cottonseed is furnished free. The govern- 
ment is aiding in the establishment of fac- 
tories for ginning and baling. The first of 
these factories has just been completed at 
Bridgetown, Barbados; another is being 
built at Antigua and a third is to be built 
at St. Vincent. 

♦ * » 

AUTOMOBILE SCHOOL FOR HORSES. 



It is not a difficult task to educate the 
average country horse to understand an 
auto will not harm him, if only one will 




Goats Feeding on Oak Brush on an Arizona Kange 



these ranges live upon oak brush princi- 
pally and from their hardy character they 
are better adapted to the arid country than 
most other domestic animals. Cattle fre- 
quently travel 10 miles from water to feed- 
ing grounds, making a distance of 20 miles 
between waterings, while sheep are often 
herded at a distance of six miles, making 
12 miles' travel for them. Sometimes when 
the distance is too great, the ground near 
an arroyo will be thickly strewn with the 
carcasses and skeletons of dead cattle. 



take the pains to train him. The Motor Age 
describes such a school for horses which a 
lover of horses— and autos— conducted the 
past summer on Mt. Washington. The first 
lesson was to run the automobile into the 
stable containing more than 100 horses. At 
first there was a great commotion, some of 
the horses even laying down from sheer 
fright. Feeding sugar to the horses from 
an automobile was one of the alluring les- 
sons which worked well. One week's train- 
ing was sufficient in most cases. 



256 



ENCYCT.OPEDIA 



FIRST AUTOMOBILE IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 



What is claimed to be the first 
automobile built in the United 
States, is still in operation and is 
owned by Achille Philion, of Akron, 
Ohio. It AA'as foiu'teen years ago 
that he had the machine built un- 
der his direction. The picture af- 
fords a very fair idea of the con- 
struction. The motive power is 
steam; the upright boiler burns 
coal; the engine is one norsepow- 
er; and the wheels are wire-spoke 
with flat metal tire. The steering 
wheel is quite similar to present 
practice, while the whistle is some- 
thing of a novelty. Two persons 
find comfortable seats in front, 
and the rear seat is for the engi- 
neer who is also fireman, and who 
controls the operation of the en- 
gine. 




Claimed to Be tHe First Auto 



Piece of tKe Water Main Used in 
City 107 Years Ago 



New York 



While workmen were excavating in the 
New York subway, they came across a piece 
of wooden water pipe which had been laid 
in 1776 and which represents a part of the 
water system of that great city 107 years 
ago. The piece in the photograph is four 
feet long. The entire piece uncovered 
measured 20 feet in length. This was part 
of a main supply pipe. The diameter of 



the log is 30 inches and the diameter of 
the hole through the center of it is three 
inches. Just how this hole was bored 
through a 20-foot length would no doubt be 
interesting to know. This old pipe was un- 
earthed at a depth of 40 feet. It is in a good 
state of preservation. New York's water 
supply 107 years ago is said to have come 
from springs in the vicinity of Canal street. 




IVooaen "Water Main 107 Years Old 



E N C Y f ' L O P E D T A 



257 



Ttie Gas Eng^ine on tKe Farm 



That handy machine, the gas engine, 
which has filled so many niches and is 
adapted to so many requirements in the 
various crafts, is nowhere growing in favor 
more rapidly than on the farms of America, 
and in a short time undoubtedly will be 
classed as a necessity among the equip- 
ment of farm machinery. The farmer has 
learned many things since the telephone 
did the pioneer work and brought the rural 
districts into closer touch with metropoli- 
tan centers, and not the least of these is 
that he lias long been the slave of much 
needless drudgery. 

One of the great advantages afforded by 
the gas engine is that the man who has but 
a few acres to cultivate need not buy a 
powerful engine, but can secure one of 
just the horsepower that will do his work. 
If he has 80 acres a 214-horsepower engine 
will be amply capable, but if he owns a 
quarter-section, he will need not less than 
a 4-horsepower size. It is astonishing the 
amount of work the 4-horsepower engine 
can perform. It will operate the washing 
machine, the separator, the churn and the 
pump all at once, if desired, and with a 
great saving of human energy. In a single 
day it will shell seven or eight hundred 
bushels of corn; it will grind two 
bushels of corn an hour for each horse- 
power used, and in running the wood saw 
it will require three or four men to handle 
wood enough to keep it busy. 

On a great many large farms an 8-horse- 
power traction engine is used for drawing 
the binder and a gang plow and for run- 
ning the shredder, feed grinder, wood saw 




and ensilage cutter, while a 2-horsepower 
gas engine is used for the lighter work, 
such as running the grindstone, emery 
wheel and churn and for pumping water. 
In cold weather the water is pumped direct 
to the drinking tank and the stock 



accustom themselves to the drinking hour 
once or twice a day. 

The farmer with but 80 acres or so of 
land stands more in need of a gas engine, 
however, than does the operator with the 
larger farm who has his traction engines 
and other up-to-date appliances to fall back 
upon. A 214-horsepower engine will pump 




Fig. 2 

the supply of water for the entire farm, the 
water being piped to house, barns and 
grounds as desired, and it will run the 
churn and the grindstone while pumping. 

A correspondent of the American Black- 
smith tells how he mounted such an engine 
on some 18-inch plow wheels which he pro- 
cured of a junk dealer and when shelling 
corn first located the sheller wherever he 
wanted it and then located the engine ac- 
cordingly. He says: 

"We use a two-hole sheller, wagon box 
elevator and wagon box cob carrier. It 
takes about half of its power to shell fifty 
bushels an hour; the engine is moved around 
as easily as an empty wagon. The feed 
grinder is a six-horse size; it will take all 
the work there is in the engine. It will 
grind from four to eight bushels an hour, 
according to condition of grain, the condi- 
tion of grinding buhrs, or the fineness 
ground; usually five bushels an hour, about 
two hours a week. The words 'no smoke, 
no ashes, no engineer' clearly express the 
facts, for once understood it is easily man- 
aged, and will run for hours without an 
attendant. A gallon of gasoline will run 
my engine for the pump about twelve hours; 
it costs less than one cent for gasoline to 
grind a bushel of grain. In the spring, 
when chicken feed is wanted, and in the 
fall, when new mush is wanted, I do grind- 
ing enough for others to buy my gasoline 
for most of the year; the expense is so 
small that it would not get an accident 



158 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



policy on your life to climb a wind mill 
tower to oil it. One day when busking, a 
hydrant was left open. We came in from 
work at nigbt. There was no water, and 
no wind to run a wheel. The engine was 
started and in a few moments there was 
water for things, and by the time chores 
were done there was three or four days' 
supply of water on hand." 

In the accompanying sketches we show 
several methods of fitting up wood sawyer's 
outfits with the gas engine. The portable 




Fig. 3 

outfits when fitted up with an engine of 
from 4 to 10-horsepower are suitable for 
sawing logs as well as cord wood and so are 
especially adapted for taking into the 
timber. 

On a great many farms much of the 
repair work is done in the farmer's own 
shop and in many of these shops the work 
is heavy enough to admit of the use of 
the gas engine. In Fig. 1 is shown a wood- 
sawing outfit geared to the engine which 
is stationed within the shop. The size of 
the circular saw of course varies with the 
size of the wood to be handled, and the 
size of the saw or wood determines tlie 
amount of power necessary to run the saw. 
With soggy wood greater power is required 
than with clear-grained wood. For handling 
cord wood a 22 or 24-inch circular saw 
with a heavy balance wheel of from 25 to 
100 pounds and run by a 2 or 3-horsepower 
gas engine is large enough and will saw 
from 10 to 30 cords of wood per day, ac- 
cording to the amount of help engaged in 
handl'ng the wood. There should be one 
man to operate the saw and another to de- 
liver the sticks to the saw table. Larger 
saws require more power; for instance, 
four horsepower would be required for a 
26 or 30-inch saw and, in fact, a 5 or 10- 
horsepower engine could be used advan- 
tageously with greater speed and more rapid 
M'ork. 



In the portable outfit, shown at Fig. 2, 
a 3-horsepower water-cooled engine is used. 
In the case of a water-cooled engine there 
is risk of the cylinder freezing in cold 
weather and tlierefore the water tank must 
be emptied Avlien shutting down and refilled 
when the engine is again started up. The 
tank holds but a couple of pailfuls of water, 
so the work of emptying and filling it is 
slight. 

The outfit shown at Fig. 3 has a 6- 
horsepower oil-cooled cylinder so that the 
trouble of emptying and refilling the cylin- 
der is done away with. The construction 
of each of the portable outfits is apparent 
in the illustrations and, of course, each is 
capable of being modified or changed ac- 
cording to individual circumstances. A 
search through the junk pile will probably 
yield all the materials required outside the 
saw and the engine, and witli the aid of a 
farm hand any farmer can fit up such an 
outfit in half a day's time. 



SURGEONS' ACETYLENE HEADLIGHT FOR 
OPERATING AT NIGHT. 



In the modern hospital the operating 
room is specially equipped to secure the 
greatest possible amount of light, both day 
and night. The walls are of the finest and 
whitest enameled brick obtainable, and a 
large skylight by day and innumerable elec- 
tric lights at night simply fill the room with 

a bright light. 
A skillful sur- 
g e n can, 
in emergency, 
get along 
without many 
of the most 
lielpful appli- 
ances, but he 
must have 
light. 

For the spe- 
cial assistance 
o f surgeons 
who are 

obliged to 
operate at night outside of the hospital. Dr. 
Kane has devised an acetylene light which 
throws an intensely bright light just where 
it is most needed. The burner and reflector 
are worn on the forehead of the operating 
surgeon, and the gas conducted through a 
small tube which runs down the doctor's 
back to a little generator fastened to a belt 
at the waist. 




Victoria's LrOng>est Train 

Consolidsttion Ty^pe Hauls 54 Cars ^VeigHing 781 Tons Over 

Heavx Oracles 




Governtnent Rail-vvays of Victoriia— Xest_Xraixk 



Fifty-four cars including a caboose, com- 
posed a test train liauled over the Govern- 
ment Railways of Victoria recently, between 
Xyora and ^Melbourne. The train, exclusive 
of engine and tendei*, weiglied 781 tons and 
is the heaviest train ever hauled in the col- 
ony of Victoria. 

The train was pulled by a consolidation 
locomotive of the Vaoelain compound sys- 
tem. The ruling gradient on the line was 
one in 75 or a raise of 70 feet per mile. So 
successful was the test that all the Govern- 
ment Railways are to be equipped with this 



259 



type of American-built locomotives in the 
future. 

American-built engines are found at the 
remotest corners of tlie globe, and it would 
be hard to convince the average American 
that any locomotive of foreign construction 
could surpass some of those put out by 
our renowned companies. In several re- 
cent constructions, however, foreign types 
have been adapted to American practice 
without departing from the symmetry and 
pleasing arrangement obtaining in Ameri- 
can types. 



260 



E N C Y C I. O P E i:) I A 



BABY AUTO FOR INFANTS. 



ELECTRIC HEATED RUGS. 



An automobile only 41/2 feet long and IV^ 
feet wide was a prize winner at a recent 
contest in England. The engines develop 




THe "Baby" Auto 

2% horsepower, and the machine will travel 
15 miles an hour. The 5-year-old operator 
with his little sister is seen in the cut, 
which we use by courtesy of the Motor 
News, Dublin. 

^ *» 

METAL BRUSH FOR CAR WASHING. 



A metal brush which fastens to a pipe 
or hose, and throws a stream of water 
while in use, is a recent improvement for 







i ■ jPm 


rl - j ^^^Hj^i^-Z^^- 







"WTasKin^ Cars 'writH a Metal BrusH 

washing cars'. Wooden brushes swell and 
become worthless in a short time. The 
metal bi'ush lasts much longer. 

It is a big task to keep hundreds of car 
windows bright and any invention which 
saves time and labor in the work is always 
in demand by up-to-date railway companies. 



So many things are electric these days 
we have long since ceased to wonder at the 
constantly increasing list. The electric rug 
is the latest, or was a few days ago. 

The rug is made with a warp of fine 
copper wire covered with asbestos, with 
filling of wool. It has the appearance of 
any other well-made tufted rug; it is made 
as carefully, in fact, more carefully, than 
most rugs, and when charged with an elec- 
tric Wire attached to the ordinary electric 
fixtures of a dwelling it generates heat very 
rapidly and at little expense— for the small 
sized rugs something like a cent an hour. 
Now, the practical value of such a rug lies 
in its use by the bedside or in the bath- 
room. The floor partially or entirely cov- 
ered with a wire warp fabric which gen- 
erates a continuous heat will, to a great 
degree, prevent the colds and the discom- 
forts of the fall and spring time when the 
house is not always heated. A hardwood 
floor is at best a cheerless thing to step on 
in the chill dawn of the morning, or to 
kneel upon in the sad hours of the night. 
With a few rugs around a room all elee- 
tricallj' heated, the early riser can peram- 
bulate without chilling his pedal extremi- 
ties, and can indulge physical culture stunts 
as he leaps from rug to rug; there will be 
practical reasons, moreover, for the maiden's 
indulgence of that prehistoric habit of 
squatting "Injun-fashion" as she dons her 
shoes and stockings. 

The rug can be set "warming" by con- 
nection to any electric light Avail socket and 
turning on the current. There is no dan- 
ger of setting the house afire, as the heat is 
mild and the under side of the rug protects 
the floor. 

«♦ « » 

SAILORS ORDERED TO BLACK THEIR 
FACES. 



One of the most curious orders given in 
the English navy is "All hands black faces!" 
And in order that this may be adequately 
fulfilled each of its warships carries among 
its stores a supply of such pigment as is 
used for the same purpose on the stage. 
This order is only given during the maneu- 
vers, as a rule, for when a night surprise is 
intended it is not only the vessels that are 
made as little visible as possible, but the 
faces of the men must be blackened, for 
when powerful night glasses are used the 
showing of a white face is far more palpa- 
ble than any landsman would suppose. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 261 

Some R.einarKable Hoisting MacHinery 



Ho-vir Coal and Ore are Handled at I«nportant I^aKe Ports— Vast 
Amount of "WorK Done A.linost A.utoinatically 



One hundred years have indeed wrought 
nonderful changes in the machinery and 
methods used in every line of industry. 
Twenty years have wrought startling 
changes I Up in Minnesota they tell a story 



scene of the event, scraped its paint against 
the rocks in the sides of the last rock cut 
on the way to the mines, and those who re- 
call the event, declare they were barely able 
to get through, but the promise was re- 



of how twenty years ago the first carload deemed. 




THe Cou'v-eyor Lriftin^ a Tub--THe Ptisber PusKin^ a Car Into tHe Craaie 



Of iron ore ever mined in that state was 
loaded at the Breitung mine and shipped to 
Two Hai-bors. The owner of the mines sent 
his son in 1883 to assume charge of the Iron 
Range railroad and the opening of the 
mines. The son, now United States Ambas- 
sador at the court of Berlin, promised that 
the first ore should be shipped August 1, 
1884. He did it, but by a close shave. The 
huge Baldwin engine that drew the special 
train carrying Mr. Tower and a party of 
friends from Two Harbors to Tower, the 



The party brought a carload of calico, 
beads, cheap jewelry, tobacco, pipes and 
fishing tackle for presents to the Indians, 
a large number of whom had been induced, 
to be present bj' this means and the prom- 
ise of plenty to eat. At sight of the plung- 
ing black monster with its escaping steam 
the red men fled precipitately to the woods 
and could not be prevailed upon to return 
for some time. 

Everyone present helped to load that first 
car of ore. Some carried chunks of it t« 



262 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Position of Car in tKe Cra«lle--Pu«b- 
er in the Center of XvacK Beloiv 
tbel^ev-el of tHe Rails so Next Car 
Can Pass Over It. 

the ear, while others wheeled a barrow 
full and no golden spike yet driven or ruddy 
wine splashed over a vessel's prow was ever 
the occasion of more merriment and felici- 
tation. No Minnesota Indian could be 
frightened by a locomotive nowadays, and 
her carloads of iron ore only attract atten- 
tion by their number and their value, but 
the incident shows what twenty years can 
do. 

In this modern era, when mechanics are 
receiving more attention than ever before, 
an appliance may seem to be absolutely per- 
fect for its purpose one day and on the next 
some great mechanical genius or expert may 
invent an appliance whicli will entirely do 
away Avith the old one, so great an improve- 
ment it is. Startling mechanical improve- 
ments are now wrought in a single day, oft- 
times. Rarely is it the mechanical genius, 
with all his natural proclivities, who works 
these great changes. More often it is the 
expert— the man, mayhap, who has spent 
years in hard study and daily experience of 



labor, who Is familiar with every mochanical 
principle and its application; who is blessed 
with no sudden inspiration, but who knows 
hoAv to apply his knowledge, and by the 
study carried on in overalls and with greasy 
hands and by exercising a clear insight and 
reasoning powers, knows how to put two 
and two together. Such men class as ex- 
perts and are employed by many large con- 
cerns simply to study the machinery em- 
ployed and see where it is susceptible to im- 
provement. 

To trace many of the important develop- 
ments in machinery would require several 
volumes. This article has to do only with 
some of the wonderful forms of hoisting- 
machinery found at the principal lake ports 
in the Union for the purpose of loading and 
unloading ore and coal. 

For handling coal from cars to vessels 
huge coal tipples are used in many places. 
The loaded car is first run into a cradle by 
means of a car pusher, a cylindrical affair 
having double-flanged wheels, traveling in 
the center of the track and drawn by means 
of a cable. When a car is in place in the 
cradle the pusher backs along its track and 
down a declivity in the center of the track 




Cradle Turning Car Bodily Over so 
tHat tHe Coal is Dumped THrou^H 
CHutes into TubSr 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



263 



until its top is below the level of the rails 
on which the cars run. The next car then 
passes along the track and over the pusher 
which then travels behind that car in its 
turn and pushes it up the grade to the 
cradle. 

The frame of the cradle on one side of 
the car rises around the car like a huge 
crooked arm and holds at a slant above and 
a little to one side of it a row of chutes or 



With this system there is practically no 
breakage, which is of great importance when 
handling bituminous coal. Three of these 
tipples with conveyors have loaded easily 
25,000 tons of coal in 22 working hours. 

Of all the ore handled at the various lake 
ports last year, 90 per cent was unloaded 
by what is known as the "Brownhoist 
Bridge Tramway." This consists of a series 
of bridges built up alQng the docks, each 




Position of Tubs BeneatH CHutes««PtisHer Behind I^oaded Car->One'Tub 
Bein^ Lrovirered by Con-veyor into tbe Hold of a Vessel 



pockets. The car is securely clamped in 
place by hydraulic clamps and is then lifted 
and turned bodily over, the coal, as the car 
turns, rolling into the chutes or pockets 
above it. These chutes, when the car is in 
the inverted position open inside of special 
tubs, and the cradle when righting leaves 
the coal in the tubs ready to be lowered in- 
to the steamer's hold. The loading is per- 
formed by means of conveyors which pick 
up these tubs and lower them into the hold, 
the bottoms of the tubs opening Avhen the 
tubs are in their lowest position in the hold. 



bridge resting on a front and rear pier and 
each operating independently of the others. 
The span between the two supports Is usu- 
ally about 180 feet and underneath it the 
space is used for storing coal or ore, as 
the case may be, with room for tracks next 
to the front pier. Beyond the back pier of 
each bridge is a cantilever extension 92 feet 
in length, and at the front, extending over 
the boat to be unloaded, is hinged to the 
bridge proper an apron which is capable of 
being raised as the boat enters or leavesj 
the dock. 



264 



ENCYCLOPEDIiV 




their entire output, which they 
toiled over with sweating brows 
and aching limbs; handles it with- 
out a groan, without a mishap, 
without a delaj^; every operation 
accurately timed. 

Perhaps the millennium will 
come when ingenious man has 
made every operation incidental to 
human existence automatic, and 
there is nothing left for him to 
work at or to contrive. 



ARTIFICIAL GUTTA-PERCHA. 



Span of tHe Bro-wrnHoist Bridge Tram-Mray, 
SHo'viring Stores of Coal and Ore and 
£inpty Cars Beneatlx 

The operation of each bridge is controlled 
by one man and operates with either steam 
or electric power. The bucket which is 
thrust down into the hold of the vessel for 
its load is carried by trolley and the load 
can be dumped at any point desired. Some- 
times the material is loaded di- 
rect into cars at the cantilever end. 
The bridge travels along the dock 
front so that it is not necessary to 
move the boat after it is once tied 
to the dock. 

In this manner coal and ore 
amounting up to thousands of tons 
are handled quickly and cheaply 
and what once would have re- 
quired a week's labor by many 
men can now be done in a day by 
the aid of a few. 

How remarkable the extent to 
which power— steam and electricity 
— have taken the place of human 
toil! What are those who delve 
in earth and rock? That vast 
throng that daily troops into the 
subterranean passages that honey- 
comb the interior of this bounteous 
country and by the lurid flare of 
lamps ply pick and shovel against 
want and famine and cold? This 
gigantic, ingenious device, this 
child of a cunning mind, operated 
by this wonderful force^ handles 



The demand for gutta-percha is 
so prone to exceed the supply that 
manufacturers are continually 
seeking a substitute for it. It is 
used for submarine cables, and for 
golf balls. In constructing cables 
it is used to insulate the conduct- 
ing wire from the exterior metal 
sheath. 

The German telegraph depart- 
ment has been testing some cables 
in which an artificial gutta-percha 
consisting of . a mixture of India 
rubber and palm wax, the melting point of 
which is the same as of rubber, was used. 
The cost of the artifical gutta-percha cable 
is fibout 35 per cent less than the ordinary 
cable, and its electrical properties are equal 
to those of the real thing. 



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S^^i^i^l^i^l^^ 


^yj 


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WB 


^^^^^HpHHI 


|MifS 


gij^p 


M 


B 


^SltB 


^^^^^^HHRSSSaiHi 


MlpHP 


JUj^gnj 


Si 


JEm 


b3TI ^1 


^HIii^B^^HiHBr*~ "v 


^HblH^ 


ZIZ^3| 


HI 


PHh 


mpt _^ 


^^^WI^K^mKmm^ 1 


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A.prons of BroivnHoist Bridge Xramway 
Extending Over Vessel«*Bucl£et ox^ 
One Ajtroxt 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

HoMT TelepHone Poles Are Set 



265 



Four Men in Tivo Minutes Noiv Do WKat Formerly R.ectuired 

Tiventy Men 



The modern method of setting telephone 
poles is in striking contrast with the old 
method. Telephone builders were many 
years in finding a method of pole-setting 
which was neither slow nor expensive. 

Several years ago the only recognized 
way to set a pole was by "piking"— that 



filled the long-felt want in every particu- 
lar, and was so simple in operation that de- 
signers felt ashamed that they had not 
thought of it themselves. 

Mounted on a strong heavy wagon with 
one leg over each pair of wheels is an in- 
verted V about 28 feet high. Rigged to the 




"Several Years Ago tHeOnlx "Way to Set a Pole was by PiRi»g»» 



is, by lifting up the pole and then lifting it 
into place with long pike-poles, supporting 
it with a yoke when necessary to secure a 
new hold with the poles. This was hard 
labor for twenty-odd men and it was slow 
work. Of course it was realized that if a 
machine could be employed it would be a 
great saving in men, time and money. Sev- 
eral mechanical pole-setters of diflferent de- 
sign were constructed, none of which met 
with success. Finally the foreman of a 
construction gang invented a machine 
called a pole-derrick which satisfactorily 



peak of this is a duplicate block and tackle, 
the one of steel and the other of 1%-inc.h 
rope. On the bed of the wagon is another 
block which forms the combination with 
the upper one and through which the rope, 
to which the liorses are hitched, passes. 
The same team which pulls the Avagon 
does the hoisting. The derrick goes into 
action in a very interesting and effective 
way. As soon as a pole is set the horses 
are hitched to the wagon and it is moved 
on to the next pole. Often this moving is 
a very ticklish business. The country is 



266 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



more often rough than smooth, and the 
four men who comprise the derrick gang 
have to be very careful in guying the 
swaying machine as it travels. Once ar- 
rived at the hole the derrick legs art- 
leaned to the proper pitch and strongly 
guyed to nearby trees or rocks. Then a 
logging chain is passed about the pole at a 
place well above the balance point. While 
this is being done the horses are attached 
to the pull rope. The pole is then shifted 
until the cross arms may be put on. As 
soon as these are bolted and spiked the 



BUTTER GLAZED TO KEEP IT FRESH. 



Nearly all the butter sold in forms in 
both England and Germany is glazed with 
a thin glass-like coating of sugar, says Con- 
sul-General Guenther, of Frankfort, Ger- 
many. The butter is first carefully kneaded 
and washed and then moulded in 1-pound 
forms and placed in a cool room. A hot 
sugar solution is painted over the surface 
to effect the glazing. A very soft brush is 
used and the painting done very rapidly. 
The hot solution melts the surface of the 




'From the Time tHe Pole L^eaves tHe Ground to the Mt>tnentlt 
is Set is No More Than Tivo Minutes." 



foreman gives the word, the horses start 
in a steady even pull and the pole rises. 
Tn less than a minute it swings clear. The 
men guide the butt so that it is over the 
hole and the horses back. The pole drops 
into place and is ready for the filling gang, 
who straighten it up and pack down the 
earth and rocks to hold it. From the time 
the pole leaves the ground to the moment it 
is set is seldom more than two minuter, 
affording a decided contrast with the time 
required to place it in the old-fashioned, 
man-handled way. 

One of these derricks was used in con- 
structing a 60-wire line between New York 
and Boston, and it was found that this 
method of setting poles cost $20 less per 
day than the old way. 



butter, and the sugar and melted butter 
form a varnish which keeps the butter pure 
and fresh and protects it from all deterio- 
rating outside influences. 



THAWING THIRD RAILS. 



A system of thawing sleet and ice from 
third rail electric lines has been tested at 
Bridgeport, Conn. A steel Avire is carried 
under the head of the rail and insulated 
from it. The temperature of the rail was 
raised from 15 deg. F. to 34 deg. F. in 15 
minutes. 

♦ « » 

The Russians lost in battle because their 
men were not as Avell trained as the Jap- 
anese. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



267 



HOW TO SECURE A LIGHT WITHOUT 
MATCHES. 



Touring automobilists may sometimes find 
themselves without matches and requiring 
light. In such case it is well to know how 
to secure a light without matches. The 
Automobile tells how it may be done. 

If the car is fitted with jump spark igni- 
tion, disconnect one of the high tension 
wires from its plug; place the free end of 
this Avire in such a position that it lays 
about a quarter of an inch away from the 
cylinder casting. Saturate a small piece of 
cotton waste or a piece of paper with gaso- 
line and place over the free end of the ig- 
nition wire. Turn on the ignition switch 
and crank the motor. When the spark 
jumps from the free end of the disconnected 
wire to the cylinder casting, it will set the 
paper or waste on fire. 

Be careful not to allow the blazing waste 
or paper to fall into the "apron," under- 
neath the motor, if one is used. This 
"apron" is usually covered with grease and 
oil, and if it catches fire it may imperil the 
car. 

On machines having make and break igni- 
tion one wire should be disconnected from 
the insulated electrode in the cylinder. A 
piece of waste or paper saturated with gaso- 
line, as previously described, is then laid on 
the cylinder head. The motor is next started 
and allowed to run slowly — on three cylin- 
ders. If the wire which has been discon- 
nected from the sparker, as described, is 
now touched on and then removed from the 
cylinder casting or masse close to the waste, 
the spark resulting from the short circuit 
will ignite the waste or paper. 




DRYING FIRE HOSE BY ELECTRICITY. 



Does Away with the Old Hose Tower or Hose 
Rack in Engine Houses. 



Rotary fire hose driers run by an electric 
motor are now coming into use in up-to- 
date engine houses for drying hose. For- 
merly the hose was carried up into the 
tower, built in the engine house for the 
purpose, and there hung up to dry. The job 
of hanging it up and taking it down again 
was by no means a small one, but the task 
was not only hard on the firemen but was 
also a strain on the hose, which is an ex- 
pensive item in the station's equipment. 

The rotary fire hose drier winds and un- 
winds' the hose automatically and with less 
friction than in ordinary handling of it. 



Rotary Fire Hose Drier A.utotiiatic« 
ally TaKin^ in Hose.j 

The exterior of the drier is constructed of 
hard wood and the interior is of iron, steel 
and brass. The electric motor is placed 
wherever most convenient, on top being a 
good place. The coils of the hose, when 
wound on the cjiindrical racks, do not 
come in contact at any point. 

The drier is closed and as easily as you 
turn on an electric light, so easily is the 
machine started. Its rapid rotation gives 
it one means of drying, and at the bottom 
of the cylinder a large fan rapidly revolv- 
ing draws over the hose al)out 6,000 feet of 
air a minute. This carries off all the mois- 
ture and in a few hours the hose is per- 
fectly dry, without having been subjected 
to any strain. 

The drier occupies four square feet of 
floor space. Its speed can be regulated at 
will and one man can operate it, handling 
500 feet of hose at one charge. 



268 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




'The Atito Dre-w tKe Car Alon^ at Its Usual Speed." 



AUTOMOBILE DRAWS STREET CAR. 



The owner of an auto in Detroit was 
boasting about the pulling abilities of his 
machine, and to malie good his claims 
hitched on to a street car that was" crowded 
with passengers. The auto turned out to 
be a first-class locomotive and drew the 
car along at its usual rate of speed. The 
illustration is used by courtesy of the 
Motor Age. 



CARD DISPLAY DEVICE FOR TELE- 
PHONES. 



FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS POPULAR 
PRICE FOR AUTOMOBILES. 



Where there is one person who can af- 
ford to pay $5,000 for a luxurious automo- 
bile there are fifty who cannot pay more 
than $500, and these are waiting for the 
manufacturers to bring their prices dow?"i. 
Thus far the demand for high-priced ma- 
chinos has been sufficient to keep the fac- 
tories busy on machines ranging from $700 
up, but if autos drive horses from the 
streets it will be when present prices are 
very greatly reduced. 

That $500 is a popular price was demon- 
strated a few days' ago in this city. A 
dealer had a job lot to dispose of, and ad- 
vertised them at the usual price, $750. No 
sales resulting, he tried them at $700, then 
$600, but without satisfactory results. Then 
he came out with an offer to close them 
out at an even $500 each, and they were 
sold in no time. 

The masses want a safe, strong car, rea- 
sonably fast, and plain and simple in fin- 
ish, and with the least possible number of 
contraptions. Before many years such ma- 
chines will be available and will find ready 
buyers. 



A new telephone adjunct is a holder for 
cards bearing the names and telephone 
numbers and exchanges of firms and busi- 




A Handy Telephone Attachtiiei\t. 

ness houses with which frequent communi- 
cation is held. The cards, indexed in large 
red letters, radiate from the center of the 
holder and may be rapidly rotated until the 
desired name appears; a deflector holds 
them in position for ready reference. The 
device saves much time spent in looking up 
the same numbers again and again in the 
directory. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



>69 




BritisH Iron SHipentine "California," the Last Sailing^SHip O-yvx^eA by tHe 
'White Star I^ine, of Liverpool 



HOW CORN COB MEAL IS MADE. 



DIVING IN A MINE. 



Cob meal is used for stock food, but its 
manufacture Las been regarded as' a secret, 
and few people,- even millers, know bow it 
is made. An inspector for an insurance 
company gives the following account of the 
l)rocess : 

Cobs are conveyed from cob warehouse 
by belting to the grinding and cleaning 
department, where they pass through sep- 
arator, and all foreign material is removed 
and carried away. During this process all 
husks and chaff are removed by blower 
fan and passed to ironclad house on out- 
side through metal pipe. This light stuff is 
later baled and shipped as material for 
mattresses. 

Ine cobs are next conveyed by s'crew 
conveyor in metal trough to mill room, 
where they are elevated to third floor and 
passed to rolls' through tin-lined spouting. 
During the milling process all pith and bee 
wings are removed by blower fans, con- 
veyed to metal screw trough, where the 
heavier material drops to bottom and 
lighter is blown out to dust house. The 
heavier unsalable stuff is brought to boiler 
house and used for fuel. The only part of 
the cob used is the hard inner core, which 
is reduced to meal in the mill room, whence 
it goes to the large bins in the warehouse 
and packing room. 



Nervy 'Work in Absolute Darkness 

To don a diver's suit and plunge into 
water under the most favorable circum- 
stances requires pluck and a fearless will, 
but when the water is 50 feet deep and at 
the bottom of a mine 1,100 feet below the 
surface the conditions are by no means im- 
proved. Such a feat, however, was recently 
performed in a deep mine in the far West. 

An accident had happened to the big 
pump. The divers descended in absolute 
darkness, and made certain repairs by sense 
of touch and feeling that were necessary 
to start the pump, and it has been running 
since perfectly. The cost did not exceed 
$175, whereas, if a new pump had been pur- 
chased and put down it would have cost at 
least five times the expense incurred for the 
divers. It was a very unusual procedure, 
but a very successful one. 

♦ * » 

Large gongs placed on poles at impor- 
tant street corners are used by the Colum- 
bus Railway & Light Company to notify in- 
spectors of breakdowns on any division of 
the line. The gongs are rung from the 
main office and the inspector communicates 
with the office by means of a telephone on 
the same pole as the gong, and is instructed 
where to go and what to do. 



270 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



GatKerin^ tKe Cotton Crop 



The first lYosts' have reached the cotton 
belt aud already the bolls are bursting and 
opening- their treasures. Cotton picking is 
a busy time In the South, and for the next 
few weeks the pickers by thousands will be 
gathering, the gins will be piling up the 
Avhite stacks, and the balers, and teamsters', 
the steamboats aud railroads will be rushed 
to their full capacity. 

Already on the long wharves at the great 
export centers of the South lies heaped mil- 
lions of dollars of the wealth of these United 
States. Not, to be sure, in glistening heaps 



ports. Of cotton alone hundreds of thou- 
sands of bales are exported from this place 
every year and the sum total of Savannah's 
exportation amounts to many millions <>f 
dollars each year. A vast space on the 
wharves is given up to naval stores. 

^—*- 

AMERICAN COASTS PROTECTED BY 
ELECTRICITY. 



Nowhere is the revolutionary change that 
electricity has wrought more marked than 
in the extent to which it has been put to 




Naval Stores and Iiumber Dooks at Savannah, Ga, 



Of coins or bundles of bills, but in that sub- 
stantial form which represents a rich and 
productive soil and healthful, soul-develop- 
ing human toil. 

Savannah, Ga., Is one of these representa- 
tive business centers of the South. Located 
as it is on the Savannah river where vessels 
of 14 feet draught and upward discharge, 
and load three miles below the harbor, and 
defended by Forts Pulaski and Jackson, its 
great wharves are scenes of teeming indus- 
try. Rice, cotton, lumber and many other 
important products are brought thither to be 
loaded on great vessels and carried to other 



use in our coast fortifications. No part of 
the equipment of the fortress is more im- 
portant, now that the electric installation 
involves so many features. 

Electric fans, electrically-operated ammu- 
nition hoists, telephones by which the whole 
system of fortifications, the commandants 
and subordinates are put into communica- 
tion, electric searchlights, telegraphs, sub- 
marine mineo electrically controlled, electric 
signaling lights, electric lights, electric 
clock circuits, all are in use, and in time, 
probably, among these will be numbered 
wireless telegraphy. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 271 

Baldwin Builds Six Locomotives a Day 



Story- of a. Great American Industry- £xnploys 15»800 Men»- 

Covers 37 A.cres 



The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadel- 
phia, was founded by Matthias W. Baldwin, 
Avhen in 1832 he built the "Old Ironsides." 
A whole year was spent in its construction, 
and $3,500 was the purchase price. It went 
into service on November 23 on the Phila- 



countered in building this first locomotive 
owing- to a lack of necessary tools. How- 
ever, she did good service for a number of 
years, and is now honored and cherished 
far above the successors of recent days. 
Thirty years passed, during which great 




Xhe First I^ocomotive, "01«1 Ironsides." 1832 




THe l,OOOtH I^ocotnotive, 1861 



delphia, Germantown & Norristown R. R., 
which was operating 6 miles by means of 
horses. "Old Ironsides" was a great event, 
weighing all of 5 tons, with driving wheels 
54 inches in diameter and front wheels 45 
inches, the wheels having wooden spokes 
and rims and wrought-iron tires. Her cylin- 
ders were 9V^-inch diameter with 18-inch 
stroke; the boiler was 30 inches in diameter 
and 7 feet long. Great difficulties were en- 



improvements and inventions had worked 
many changes in locomotive building, and 
Baldwin pointed proudly to locomotive No. 
1,000. It was built for tlie Pennsylvania 
railroad and had two pair of driving wheels. 
It was intended for light passenger work, 
and dispensed with a tender by carrying its 
water in a tanlc over the boiler. This ma- 
chine weighed 23 tons. 
The next 10 years were busy ones, during 



272 



E N C Y T. O P E D I A 



which a thousand locomotives were built. 
No. 2,000 being completed October 30, 1869. 
It shows a much greater likeness to present 
day types and was delivered to the Penn- 
sylvania road. This was a soft coal burner, 
weighing 75,600 pounds, with 56,000 pounds 



on the driving wheels. The separate 8-wheel 
tender had a capacity of 2,400 gallons of 
water and i% tons of coal. Two hundred 
and fifty of these were built, and it hap- 
pened that No. 3,000, which was finished 
in December, 1872, was of the same typ? 




Tbe 2,OOOth Lrocomotive, 1869 




Tbe 4,OOOtH Locomotive, 1S76 




THe 5,OOOtH Lrocomotive, 1880 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



273 



und size. No. 4,000, October, 1876, was con- 
sidered liandsome in those days. It weiglied 
35 tons, and sbows the change in staclv, but 
retains the low cab. 



No. 5,000 was an effort toward greater 
speed, which the better trades permitted 
and growing business interests demanded. 
It came out in March, 1880, and covered the 




The COOOtH Locomotive, 1882 




' ' ' ''JMMliJJA- 



The 7,OOOtH I<ocomotive, 1883 




TKe lO.OOOtH Locomotive. 1889 



274 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



distance between Philadelphia and Jersey 
City in 90 minutes. It was afterward sold 
to an air brake company and sent to Eng- 
land to demonstrate the brake. The evolu- 
tion of the stack is noticeable and a more 
roomy cab, which begins to approach in 
height that of the stack. The firebox is 
larger and the one pair of drivers were 78 
inches in diameter. The entire weight was 
83,200 pounds, with 38,300 pounds on the 



driving wheels. An auxiliary fulcrum was 
brought into play by means of a toggle 
joint operated by a steam cylinder which 
shifted 9,000 pounds more on the drivers 
when desired. 

Locomotive No. 6,000 was built in Janu- 
ary, 1882, and was one of the heaviest in 
use at that time on the narrow-gage roads. 
One hundred of this type were sent to the 
Denver & Rio Grande road. In working 




THe 12,OOOtK Ivocomotive, 18Q1 




THe 13,OOOth Locomotive, 18Q2 




THe ICOOOtH Locomotive, 1808 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



275 




THe 17,OOOth Loconiotive, 1899 



order the weighi Avas 58,000 pounds, of 
whicli 50,000 pounds were on the drivers. 

The capacity of the works had been in- 
creasing bj' the erection of additional build- 
ings and the invention of labor-saving ma- 
chinery, and in less than a year the output 
had reached the 7,000 mark. This locomo- 
tive weighed 110,000 pounds and went to 
the Northern Pacific road. 

No. 13,000, which appeared in 1892, was 
then a new type, with the engineer's cab 
foi'ward over the boiler. It weighed 141,600 
pounds, had Vauclain compound cylinders 
and went into freight service on the Lehigh 
Valley road. 

No. 16,000 is peculiar in appearance and 
interesting as having been built for the 
Moscow-Windau-Robinsk railway of Russia. 
Twenty engines were sent over at this time. 
No. 17.000 is a freight engine for the Chi- 
cago, Burlington & Quincy, and 18,000 was 
taken by the Union Pacific. No. 19,000, built 
in 1901, is a mammoth freight locomotive 
for the Illinois Central. No. 23,000 was 
turned out in October, 1903, and is known 
as the Santa Fe type, having a peculiar con- 
struction of the cylinders. No. 24,000, 
March, 1904, also went to the Santa Fe. 



The progress made in 72 years from the 
little 9-inch cylinder of "Old Ironsides" to 
the Vauclain tandem compound system can 
be realized best bj^ a study of the illus- 
tration, in which a portion of the walls 
surrounding one set of cylinders is removed 
to show the construction and operation of 
the valves. The picture was made from a 
model of actual size and is best realized by 
comparison with the height of the man 
standing beside it. 

The locomotives illustrated in this story 
are all on exhibit at the Exposition in St. 
Louis, many having been loaned by rail- 
roads for the purpose, to be returned when 
the Fair closes; the others are the property 
of the Baldwin company. 

This brief pictorial history of the prog- 
ress of locomotive construction represents 
the extension and expansion of the great 
railway system, which has reached out in 
all directions until it covers the land from 
ocean to ocean and Great Lakes to the Gulf. 
The Baldwin works has kept pace and is 
now one of the great industries of the 
country. 

The annual capacity of the works is at 
present 2,000 locomotives per year, with 



fc-to-ll 




Tbe 18,OOOtH L^ocomotive, 1900 



276 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 




THe IQ.OOOtK I^ocotnotive, IQOl 



repair parts produced equal to 250 locomo- 
tives more. Work is carried on at the rate 
of over six complete locomotives each day. 
There are 39 buildings covering 17 acres 
of ground, with 37 acres of floor space, 
vi^here 15,800 men are employed. The prin- 
cipal departments run continuously 23 
hours a day. To drive the thousands of 



AMERICAN HORSESHOES FOR ENGLAND. 



Tons of American horseshoes are sent to 
England every day, and the strange fea- 
ture of the case is that they are made 
chiefly of English iron. The American Ma- 
chinist says: In Poughkeepsie, N. Y., is an 
establishment in which many tons of horse- 




The 20,000tK Lfocomotive, 1Q02 



machines 11,334 horsepower is required. 
The works are lighted by 5,550 arc and in- 
candescent lamps; 2,150 tons of coal are 
burned each week, and 5,000 tons of metal 
are used every six days— almost a thousand 
tons a day. 

Matthias Baldwin builded better than he 
knew. 



shoes are made daily. Many of these go to 
England and are there nailed to the feet 
of omnibus and other horses working in 
London. A very large share of the scrap 
iron from which these shoes are made 
comes from England. Scrap iron is consid- 
ered the best material for horseshoes, and 
it is not so plentiful as it once was. 




Tlkc 23,OOOtKj.I«ocoinotive 190S 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



277 



A HOME-MADE CAMERA TRIPOD. 

For amateur photography it is wholly un- 
necessary to purchase a camera tripod, as 

a A-ery satis- 
factory one 
can be made 
at home. 

For legs se- 
lect three 1x1- 
iiich sticks 4 
feet long and 
sharpen them 
at one end. 
Place the 
pointed ends 
of the legs 
down ward 
and at points 
forming a triangle on the floor. Cover the 
upper ends with a lard pail placed upside 
down as shown in the sketch. Adjust the 
pail so that it is level and steady and the 
tripod is ready for use. 



The vessel has accommodations for 1,300 
passengers, and can carry 8,000 tons of 
freight. 




THE TURBINE LINER "VICTORIAN. 



The launching, a few weeks ago at Bel- 
fast, of the first Atlantic turbine liner is 
considered in marine circles to mark the 
beginning of a new era in ocean-going ves- 
sels. The illustration is a cross section 
looking forward and slrows the arrange- 
ment of the two condensers, the two low 
pressure and the high pressure turbine. 
The turbines, which are of the Parson's 
type, are the largest yet built. 

The "Victorian" is 540 feet long; breadth 
60 feet; depth, 42 feet 6 inches, with a dis- 
placement of 13,000 tons. She is divided by 
bulkheads into 11 compartments which with 
the double bottom allow the vessel to have 
20 distinct water-tight spaces. The Marconi 
system will be installed, and a refrigerating 
plant for the carriage of perishable freight. 




R.ea<3y to Lratxnch 




Cross Section SHoiwin^ Arrangement of Turbines 



278 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



THe "Porcupine,** A New Macliine For Repair- 
ing Macadam IVoads 



A new machine for repairing macadam 
roads called the Porcupine is attracting 
considerable attention from municipalities 



surface of the hardest macadam road from 
curb to curb, uniformly loosens and sep- 
arates the particles that compose the sur- 




Four Vie^vs of tKe Po 

Avhere the expense for road repairs amounts 
to a considei'able sum annually. The ma- 
chine is quite as ungainly in appearance as 
the animal after which it is named, but 
like that animal it has quills or spikes 
which do the work most effectively. 

The Porcupine takes the place of the old, 
unsatisfactory and expensive method of 
hand picking the roads and breaks up the 



rcupine it& Positio>\ 

face, but without breaking the pieces of 
crushed stone and to a depth which re- 
moves all ruts and permits of reforming 
the street. 

The machine weighs 4,000 pounds and, in 
the process of scarifying the road, is drawn 
by an eight or ten-ton steam roller to which 
it can be attached in a moment's time by 
means of a chain, and quite as easily 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



279 



detached. The steam roller drawn the Por- 
cupine to the end of the length of street 
under repair, one man regulating its opera- 
tions. It does not jump or switch from side 
to side, but follows its course straight and 
true. If there are crossings to pass over 
its spikes are lifted until it has passed. 
When it has reached the end of the piece 
the roller laps over and draws the Porcu- 
pine back again, the machine scarifying 
each time for its full width and to any 
depth desired, the depth being regulated 
while the machine is in operation. 

After the scarifying process the road can 
be harrowed to form a crown, if desired. 



THE MAN BEHIND THE SHOVEL. 



Ihe way in which the man who shovels 
the coal into the furnace does his work has 
the effect of increasing or decreasing the 
cost of steam production, although it is 
hard to get mill owners to realize this' fact. 

Modern Machinery tells of a recent test 
which shows how different firemen work- 
ing under the same conditions will produce 
different results. Four good stokers were 
put to fire the same boilers, all conditions 
being similar. There was a difference be- 
tween the most and least expert of 23 per 
cent in capacity and 18 per cent in economy. 




The Porcupine in Position 



rolled down, stone and dust added as a top 
dressing and then sprinkled, making a fine 
new street, perfect in every way and re- 
paired at a minimum of expense. 

One Porcupine with the aid of one steam 
roller lias scarified a bloclv of the hardest 
city street to be found, and the surface was 
then shaped up and rolled down, the whole 
process being done, by the labor of four 
men, between the hours of 10 a. m. and 6 
p. m. This is a fair example of the amount 
it can do. In other terms it may be stated 
as able to thoroughly loosen 4,000 square 
yards in ten hours. The machine will work 
close up to the curb and while moving in 
either direction. 



The raw material that passes through 
the hands of the fireman is one from which 
there is no by-product. As a rule, he does 
his best and maintains a fairly even steam 
pressure. He knows that the less coal he 
throws in the lighter is liis labor, but be- 
yond this he has no incentive to economy. 
Yet he is the one wlio can effect economies. 
Some of the larger plants have introduced 
a coal bonus, which is divided among the 
firemen who show best results. This plan 
might not be feasible in small plants where 
only one or two men are employed, but in 
such cases the manager can interest him- 
self to the extent of seeing that coal is used 
intelligently. 



280 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



STUPENDOUS PROJECT OF BRITISH 
SCIENTISTS. 



Plan to Dig a Hole Twelve Miles Deep— To Cost 
$25,000,000— Time Required 85 Years. 

The British Scientific Association are seri- 
ously considering the plans for sinking a 
giant shaft many miles below the surface 
of the earth, and estimates of expert engi- 
neers place the cost of a 12-mile deep hole 
at $25,000,000, and allow 85 years for the 
completion of the undertaking. 

While the scheme may at first thought 
seem an insane one, is it really anj^ more 
so than the ever recurring attempts to reach 
tne North Pole? As a matter of fact the 
project is more likely to be productive in 
valuable knowledge, and there is even the 
possibility, though not the strong probabil 
ity, that rich minerals may be found to re 
ward the projectors, or their posterity. 

Two deep holes, each about one mile ii 
depth, have been sunk, one in Silesia and 
another in South Africa, but no one has 
ever previously planned to go down 10, 20, 
or 50 miles into the bowels of the eartli 
and diagnose the symptoms there prevail- 
ing. The plans and estimates of the work 
are already well started under the direc- 
tion of the Hon. Charles A. Parker, of the 
Engineering Sectioi: of the British Associa 
tion. The engineers assume that for the 
first four or five miles the temperature 
would not be unbearable, but below that 
point resort would be necessary, to air locks 
and a freezing process which would make 
the hole tenable to human existence. The 
experts have that all planned out, however, 
and the freezing system of M. Poesche, a 
noted Belgian engineer, is believed to an- 
swer all the requirements for the second 
12 miles or so. 

Time in Temp, of 

Depth. Cost. years. Rock. 

2 miles $2,500,000 10 122 deg. F. 

4 miles 5.500,000 25 122 deg. F. 

6 miles 8,000,000 40 182 deg. F. 

8 miles 13.500,000 55 212 deg. F. 

10 miles 18,500,000 70 242 deg. F. 

12 miles 25.000,000 85 272 deg. F. 

The possibilities of a rich "find" are cer- 
tainly attractive: it may be a bed of dia- 
monds, or other precious stones. There may 
be strata of gold or silver as great as those 
of hard coal in Pennsylvania; or vast ledges 
of mercury or tin, or even the more common 
but still highly valuable deposits of lead, or 
copper, or zinc. In any event the geological 
disco\ej*ies could not fail to outrank many 
times any results possible to bring back 
ifrom either the South or North Pole. The 
more one reflects on the undertaking the 



greater the desire to know what is down 
below us, and whether a single rock stratum 
is miles in thickness. Canj^ons on the sur- 
face show frequently several strata. 

Then there is the possibility of tapping a 
great lake of oil which could not be ex- 
hausted in centuries; or some heat-giving 
center which might last for thousands of 
years. With electrical transmission per- 
fected to its fullness might it not be pos- 
sible to send to all parts of the world elec- 
trical energy for power; or for transfor- 
mation into heat that would temper the 
Arctic zone until the vines and fruits of 
Italy could bloom throughout the year. 

All this sounds chimerical: but is it? 

We know much; but not all knowledge 
will pass away with this generation. 

How long did Galileo contend for his the- 
ory? And to how many was it given to 
really believe that Columbus was other than 
an insane rover? 

The ancients did many things we are still 
vainly trying to imitate, and every little 
while evidence appears that some of our 
proudest achievements were practiced thou- 
sands of 3'ears ago. However, history in- 
clines to the belief that their efforts were 
directed toward raising lofty towers and 
rearing pyramids rather than digging holes 
in the ground. 

Have we then at last really discovered 
something new to do? If" so, let us all 
cheerfully chip in and put in operation at 
the earliest possible moment the deepest 
hole which has ever been dug by any world. 
» « » 

HOW TO MARK TITLES ON NEGATIVES. 



Marking titles on negatives so they print 
white on the picture is a very simple matter 
and may be done in either of two ways. 

Write the name backward on a corner of 
the negative where there is a shadow, using 
India ink, or write it upon the paper before 
printing, using India ink in that case, also. 
The ink will Avash off in the after-treatment 
and leave the title in white lettering, says 
the American Amateur Photographer. 
*-<-* 

It is rumored that two big American ship- 
building yards have taken contracts, one to 
build a fair- sized navy for Japan, and the 
other for 13 torpedo boats for Russia. The 
contract with Japan calls for 14 battleships 
and cruisers. At Lewis Nixon's ship yards 
at Perth Amboy the skeletons of 10 torpedo 
boats, each 100 feet long, have taken shape. 
The boats will be propelled by standard gas 
engines. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



281 



BRILLIANT ELECTRIC DISPLAY AT A 
SAN FRANCISCO EVENT. 



The electric illuminations on Market 
street, San Francisco, during tlie convention 
of tlie Knights Temphir recently held there 



will produce the power necessary for its 
propulsion. Therefore there must be other 
reasons than the expected economy in power 
production to warrant the adoption of elec- 
tricity on a trunk line railway unless it 
can be shown that the trains are frequent 




"The Street For Many BlocKs 'liVas Clothed in a Scintillating Effulgence 

of Electricity** 



was one of the most brilliant and beautiful 
displays of the kind ever made in this 
country. Thousands of lights with vari- 
hued globes were used in carrying out the 
elaborate decorative designs, and the street 
for many blocks was clothed in a scintillat- 
ing effulgence of electricity. 

We are indebted to W. L. Woodworth of 
San Francisco for the illustration. 



ELECTRICITY FOR STEAM ROADS. 



In an address before the Electrical Con- 
gress in St. Louis, B. J. Arnold said: 

"It may be taken as axiomatic that when 
investment is taken into consideration, 
power cannot be produced in a steam cen- 
tral station, under conditions that exist to- 
day, and transmitted any great distance to 
a single electrically propelled train, requir- 
ing from 1,000 to 2,000 horsepower to keep 
it in motion, as cheaply as a steam loco- 
motive, hitched directly in front of the train. 



enough to make the saving in the cost of 
producing power greater than the increased 
fixed charges made necessary by the in- 
creased investment due to the adoption of 
electricity. 

That electricity will be generally used on 
our main railway terminals, and untimately 
on our main through lines for passenger and 
freight service, I am convinced, but I do 
not anticipate that it will always be adopted 
on the grounds of economy in operation. 
Neither do I anticipate that it will come 
rapidly or through the voluntary acts of 
the owners of steam railroads, except in 
special instances. 

♦ » » 

During August 8,649 pieces of baggage 
were handled daily at the Union station. St. 
Louis. This is nearly twice the amount 
handled during August of last year and 
41,000 pieces over July. A remarkable fact 
is that trunks composed 94 per cent of the 
baggage handled. 



282 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



FRENCH TEST NAVAL BALLOON. 



In aerial navigation tlie French are ahead 
of all other nations of the world. Even 
the wily Brazilian, Santos Dumont, claims 
it as the loved country of his adoption. Re- 




and can also be raised or lowered vertically 
according to the range. It is H-shaped, con- 
sisting of two uprights crossed by a thin bar. 
In order to get a correct alignment the cap- 
tain of the gun trains until the bar of the 
rear sight directs the "pea" for elevation, 
and until the "pea" is exactlj^ sideways be- 
tween the uprights for direction. 

Now very naturally the captain of the 
gun being used to this method of sightin:^' 
requires as close a representation of the bar 
and "pea" for his night sights, as possible, 
and a very good imitation is obtained by re- 
flecting the light of the rear sight in the 
form of a bright line, and that of the fore 
sight in the form of a bright spot. 

For this purpose a U-shaped piece is fitted 
on to the lantern immediately above the 
beam of light, and in the fore sight a tiny 
mirror of polished metal is let into the cen- 
ter of the inverted U frame at an angle of 
45°, this reflects the light in the form of a 
small red speck. The rear sight has a slight 
depression in the center on either side of 
which a strip of polished metal inclined at 



Test of French Naval Balloon 

cently the French Navy has made thorough 
and severe tests of a balloon as a naval ad- 
junct. The French are sanguine of the ul- 
timate success of the balloon and the airship 
as important features of all great navies. 



ELECTRIC NIGHT SIGHTS. 



A ship engaged in a night attack is 
shrouded in complete darkness which is se- 
cured by closing all the dead-lights with 
which every scuttle is fitted, and switching 
off the dynamo from the incandescent lamp 
circuit. No lights of any description are 
allowed on the upper deck, and the conse- 
quence is that the guns have to be worked 
in complete darkness, this necessitates the 
use of "night sights." These consist of tiny 
lanterns containing very small glow lamps 
which are rendered incandescent by bat- 
teries. 

The lanterns are joined in fork to the 
battery, and are easily shipped on to the 
ordinary day sight. Now the form of sight 
used in daylight is as follows:— The fore- 
sight consists of a "pea" or bead mounted 
on a knife-edge, and is fixed— that is to say, 
it does not alter its position to allow for 
deflection or distance; the rear sight, on the 
other hand, may be screwed laterally along 
a scale to allow for deflection and windage, 




FORESIGHT 



REARSIGHT 



45° reflects a line of light broken in the 
center where the depression is. The re- 
flection of the fore sight is red, and thus the 
captain of the gun trains until his red spoc 
is just filling the break formed by the de- 
pression, in the line of light that is visible 
as a broken white band upon his rear sight. 



The United States owns 1,200 steamships, 
while Great Britain has 8,500. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



283 



THE TELEPHONE IN THE WHITE HOUSE. 



Where and How the President of the United 

States Holds Telephonic Conferences and 

Sends Telegrams and Cablegrams 



One of the busiest spots at the White 
House is the Telegraph and Cipher Bureau, 
which is never closed, day or night, year In 
and year out^ and where hundreds of mes- 
sages dealing with vital affairs of state and 
having to do with the welfare of a great 
nation are received or sent daily. In all, 65 
Avires converge in this room and, including 
the President's private code, telegrams and 



can talk with any government official in 
Washington without the message passing 
through the city central office. 



PROGRESS OF MARCONI SYSTEM. 



The Marconi system is now successfully 
transmitting messages 1,500 miles to sea, 
which leaves a gap of about 500 miles 
which is not positively covered. That is, a 
vessel sailing from Liverpool is in com- 
munication with the English station for the 
first 1,500 miles and is then without service 
for 500 miles, or until it enters the 1,500-mile 
zone served from the station on this side. 




Copyrighted by WaWon Fawcett 



Telegraph and Cipher Bureau at the White House 



cablegrams are sent in 10 different codes. 

President Roosevelt will not have a tele- 
phone instrment in his private office, but 
goes to the telegraph and telephone room in 
the White House, where he is frequently en- 
gaged in long-distance conversations for 
some time, as during the anthracite coal 
strike when he was thus engaged with the 
leaders of both sides, frequently for long 
interA'als. The central telephone station in 
this room is so arranged that the President 



Marconi having accomplished this, shall wo 
doubt his abilit.y to connect up the entire 
distance? His visit to America during Octo- 
ber was to arrange for greater power 
which he believes will solve the difficulty. 
While here he stated: "Though thus far 
the experiments have been imperfect, they 
have mainly failed because of lack of 
poAver. I purpose to increase that of the 
Cape Bi-eton station, and I have new appli- 
ances for a more perfect radiation for the 



284 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



electric waves. I believe that I can over- 
come the long distance vrith more power. 
The Cunard steamships now get their bulle- 
tins readily and accurately when 1,500 miles 
from shore. With sufficient power the re- 
maining distanc<} across the sea can be 
overcome, I believe. Recent experiments 
in Italy developed curious phenomena 
which distance only cannot explain." 



foot. A strong pressure upon this pedal 
will stop the machine altogether when nec- 
essary. 



INGENIOUS EMBOSSING MACHINE. 



Decorations on metal vessels have been 
largely the result of hand woi-k, and con- 
sequently expensive. When these figures 
are raised the process is known as relief 
work; when they are indented, it is 
repousse. A German inventor has produced 
a machine which will do both processes, 




Embossing Machine 

which he accomplishes by small, pointed 
hammers — one outside and one working in- 
side the vessel. The Metal Worker do- 
scribes the process thus: 

In effect, the work is done as follows: 
The design is either drawn or stenciled 
upon the outside of the vessel to be dec- 
orated. The arm of the embossing ma- 
chine, upon the end of whicli a hammer is 
fixed, is introduced into the neck of the 
vessel, and is followed on the outside by a 
pointer, which shows exactly where the 
head of the hammer will come in contact 
with the metal within. The belt is then 
shifted and the machine is started. Three 
speeds are at the disposal of the operator; 
namely, 900, 1,200 or 1,600 taps of the ham- 
mer per minute. The pointer is held di- 
rectly above the point of attack, and, 
though out of sight, the hammer must 
strike directly under it. Variation in the 
force of the stroke is often desirable, and 
for this provision is made, the varying 
force being produced by a pedal placed 
within convenient reacli of the operator's 



THREE-PHASE STATIC GROUND DETEC- 
TOR. 



An instrument is now available for test- 
ing grounds on three-phase circuits of 
from 1,000 to 50,000 volts potential.- The 
previous method of combining two or three 
single-phase instruments has been unsatis- 
factory because slow. The diagram, from 
the Street Railway Journal, shows how the 
new device operates. 

It will be seen that each of the three 
fixed vanes is connected to a line of the 
three-phase circuit. The central movablt" 
vane is electrically connected to the case, 
which is grounded. When there is no 
ground upon the circuit the attraction or 
pull upon the central vane from each of 
three fixed vanes is balanced and it does 
not deflect from a central position. Should 
one of the lines become grounded, and the 
potential of that line become the same as 
that of the movable vane, there will be no 
pull in that direction, and the movable 
vane will be deflected away from the 
grounded line. The instrument is reliable 
m its indications and is not complicated. 



<i ^\\\\V\\\\v: 




In the diagram the three leads to the 
grouad detector are shown with a con- 
denser inserted between each line and the 
instrument. This obviates the necessity of 
carrying high-tension wires to the front of 
the switchboard. Each of the condensers 
consists of a brass tube covered with in- 
sulating material and placed within a cop- 
per sheath, the line being connected to the 
inner tube and the lead to the copper 
sheath. 



E N C Y t' L O P E I) I A 



285 



Harvesting Grapes in America's Vineyards 




A VijA«yar«l Scei&e Xypical of MicHigfan, Ne-iv YorK and Many Othev 

/^nkerican States IVhere Grapes A.re Purpliii^ for tHe 

Harvest, in Great Lucious Clusters 




VITbere Hta.ndreds oi 1 liousands of Grape BasHets Are Turned OvLt 

Annually 



286 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



A CAPILLARY MOTOR. 

Little Invention May Lead to Important Appli- 
cations of the Principle. 



A Frenchman, M. Leboyer of Riom, has 
eontrivwl a httle motor out of a few pieces? 
of blotting paper, some rocks and a piece 
of tinder which utilizes the capillarity of 
certain substances for liquids and turns it 
into a force. Tlie little motor is very sim- 
ple in operation and may lead to fui'ther 
important developments. 




A CapiUary Motor 

We all know how readily the wicli of a 
Iamb absorlis oil and carries it far above 
the level of the liquid through the burner 
where it feeds the flame. One may experi- 
ment by holding a strip of blotting paper 
vertically in a little water and noting the 
height above the water to wliich it becomes 
moistened by this same capillary action. 
This poAver of imbibing water varies, of 
course, with the substance. The inventor 
of tlie capillary motor, wlio has a most ob- 
servant eye for natural phenomena, discov- 
ered a rock wliicli imbibes liquids wlien 
placed vertically in them, sometimes to a 
lieight of four inches above tlie level of the 
liquid. 

In malcing the motor he placed two oblong 
sections of this rock vertically in a basin 
full of water and at the top between the 
two rock supports arranged a piece of ama- 
dou or German tinder, a very porous in- 
flammable substance made of fungus 
growth. The lower end of the tinder came 
in contact with a wheel formed of bloclvs 
of blotting paper placed edgewise around 
its whole circumference. Upon the axle of 



the wheel is arranged a band carrying two 
tiny budgets. The water rises through the 
rock supports, is imbibed by the porous tin- 
der and again by the blotting paper wheel 
which the tinder touches. The whole left 
side of the wheel becomes so heavy with 
water that the wheel turns and once more 
its equilibrium is established by the rest of 
the wheel absorbing water. When the water 
in the opposite side has evaporated suffi- 
ciently to again destroy the equilibrium the 
wheel again turns. The rapidity of the 
revolutions depends of course on the condi- 
tion of the atmosphere. In the meantime 
the little buckets rise and descend with 
every revolution of the wheel lifting water 
about four inches. The motor, of course, 
acts vei\v irregularly and lifts only a little 
water in 24 liours. 

The motor can be easily constructed by 
anyone who wishes to try the experiment 
for himself. 



AUTO REPLACES MULE. 



The superintendent of a big sugar plan- 
tation in Louisiana lias adopted an automo- 
bile for inspection trips over the fields. 




Inspecting Sugar Plantation 

The roadways are kept up in good condi- 
tion on account of the great amount of 
hauling during the year, and the cliange 
from mules to machine was an easy one 
and a great saving in time. 



In tlie million dollar subway at the Union 
station, St. Louis, no provision was made 
for drainage. It filled with water a few 
days ago and will have to be reconstructed 
before use. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



287 



A COASTER CLOCK. 



Rolls Down Hill for 24 Hours — Requires No 
Winding — Keeps Perfect Time. 



A watch and clock- making establishment 
at Zurich has invented a clock which keeps 
time by rolling down hill for 24 hours. This 
mechanical freak spends the entire 24 hours 




In going to the bottom of the plane once. 
The distance it travels in that time is about 
15% inches and the clock rolls constantly 
but almost imperceptibly. 

The clock is made in the form of a cylin- 
der and the plane base is tilted at an angle 
of 20 degrees. When the clock reaches the 
bottom of the plane it is simply lifted up 
and placed at the top again. The clock has 
no spring and therefore requires no wind- 
ing. The numerals on its face read from 
right to left instead of, as usually, from left 
to right. Along the upper edge of the In- 
clined base is another time scale, the fig- 
ures of which correspond exactly with those 
on the face of the clock. In indicating the 
time the numerals on the clock face pass 
behind a hand whicli always maintains its 
vertical position, despite the rotation of the 
cylinder, the upper end of the hand indi- 
cating the time by the numerals on the 
clock face and the lower end pointing to 
the corresponding numeral of the scale on 
the edge of the base. 

"This invention though startling Is very 
simple and not at all new," says the Key- 
stone. "It is very clearly described in a 
book of mathematical and mechanical curi- 
osities published in 1719." 

The same paper goes on to explain the in- 
terior mechanism of the clock, referring to 
Fig. 2. Within and at the center of the 
cylinder, C, is fixed a strong clock move- 
ment, M, without a barrel. The apparatus 
thus consti-ucted is balanced with the great- 
est care, for it is an indispensable factor 
in its proper working that no inequality of 
weight should be found upon the circum- 
ference of the cylinder. Placed upon an 



incline it is evident that such a cylinder 
would instantly roll to the bottom. 

But let us suppose a weight, P, joined by 
an arm to the central axis and fixed upon 
it; this counterpoise if sufficiently heavy 
and placed behind the central perpendicular, 
would cause the cylinder to roll back or up 
the incline to the point where its equi- 
librium should be established— say in a posi- 
tion shown in the sketch. Without a train 
and an escapement the cylinder would re- 
main thus immovably fixed upon the plane, 
but the weight, P, combined with the gravi- 
tating force of the cylinder, acts as motive 
power, and the center wheel, upon the axis 
of which is fixed the counter weight, turns 
at a rate governed by the escapement and 
the balance. The constant tendency of the 
weight is to fall, but it being impossible 
to destroy the equilibrium, the cylinder pro- 
ceeds slowly down the incline as the re- 
taining weight, P, is periodically released. 
Having finished its downward course, it 
suffices to place the cylinder again at the 




Fig. 3 

head of the plane upon the same hour as it 
marked when removed from below, to have 
it repeat the operation. We should not fail 
to remark that for a full 24-hour run our 
Fig. 1 is not properly divided on the plane; 
the numbers should begin with VI and end 
with VI. 

This curious clock has attracted a great 
deal of attention wherever displayed. Great 
crowds gather to watch it and wonder and 
try to figure out just how it works. 



"The building material of the future wili 
be beton, it is predicted," says United States 
Consul Kehl at Stettin, Germany. The Ger- 
mans are making many experiments with 
beton and claim that it is least susceptible 
to fire of all building materials in use, is 
cheap and is very durable. 



288 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CONVENTIONAL SIGNS USED BY FOR- 
EIGN ELECTRICAL DRAFTSMEN. 



Blueprints and drawings laid out by Ger- 
man, Austrian and Italian engineers and 
draftsmen in their designs for wiring of 
buildings, etc., are generally most elaborate. 
Every little detail is shown in a most pains- 



X 

--X 

a 

©a 

I — X 

1 

-^- 
-^ 

-^3- 



0s 

01 



3 



Fixed incandescent lamp. 
Portable Incandescent lamp. 

Stationary group of incandescent 
lamps ; number of lamps, five. 

Portable group of incandescent 
lamps ; number of lampa, 
three. 

Arc lamps of six amperes. 
Wall bracket (one lamp). 
Standing lamp (one lamp). 
Hanging lamps (two lamps). 
Electrolier (four lamps). 

Wall tube. 

Single-pole cut-out ; If a figure is 
alongside, it denotes am- 
peres. 

Double-pole cut-out ; if a figure is 
alongside, it denotes amperes. 

Three-pole cut-out ; If a figure is 
alongside. It denotes am- 
peres. 

Wall attachment. 
Small branch cut-out. 

Reversing or pole-changing 

switch for three amperes. 

Single-pole switch for four am- 
peres. 

Double-pole swit<;h for four am- 
peres. 

Three-pole switch for four am- 
peres. 

Single circuit (flexible cordi 



taking manner, and the signs here illus- 
trated are universally used in the countries 
mentioned, to designate the material or ap- 
paratus to be used for proposed plants, says 
Arthur D'Romtra in the Western Electrician. 
One readily gets accustomed to them, and 
I find that in estimating for foreign work, 
the use of foreign prints with these symbols 
greatly accelerates the capabilities of the 
estimate department. The following con- 
ventional symbols are used in the three 
above-named countries: 



Conductors: B., bare copper; B. E., bare 
iron galvanized; G., seamless rubber insula- 
tion; L., flexible cords; K. B., bare lead- 
covered cable; K. A. lead-covered cable with 
asphaltum-taped cover; K. E. lead-covered 
cable, ai-mored; g., conductors on insulators; 
0., conductors in iron conduit. 

Firms making out plans and drawings to 

' Ordinary return circuit 



Three-wire or alternating-cur- 
rent circuit. 



Flexible conduit, 
(Greenfield type) 



armored 



^ 



Vertical mains, up and down. 

Switchboard, two-wire system. 

Switchboard, three-wire sys 
tem, or alternating. 

Rheostat or heating appliance 
of ten amperes. 

Portable rheostat of six am- 
peres. 

Choking coil 

Lightning arrester 

Lightning-rod tip. 

Ground. 

Accumulators or secondary bat 
teries. 

Dynamo or generator, wltn ten 
kilowatts capacity. 

Motor with two kilowatts ca 
pacity. 

Transformer with capacity of 
eighty-five kilowatts. 

Two-wire meter, with capacity 
of five kilowatts. 

Three-wire or alternating-cur- 
rent meter with capacity 
of ten kilowatts. 

Ammeter. 
Voltmeter 



be used in the before-mentioned countries 
will do well to consider these symbols, and 
also carefully to add in figures the proposed 
amperes to be carried on each wire or cable. 



Dr. Niels R. Finsen, whose experiments 
covering many years sueessfully demon- 
strated the use of chemical rays as a cuni- 
tive agent, died in Copenhagen, September 
24. His "Finsen's Medical Light Institute" 
gained world-wide renown in curing tuber 
culosis of the skin. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



289 



PLOWED WITH AN AUTOMOBILE. 



HOW TO KEEP BICYCLE TIRES FROM 
CREEPING. 



The automobile is put to many uses and 
abuses. Not long ago a Chicago physician 
used one to disperse a gang of hold-up men 
and now an eastern farmer has hitched one 
to a plow and is attempting to plow his 
fields with it. 

The farmer first tried the combination in 
an effort to check a fire in a field of stubble 
and it was such a success that he began ex- 
perimenting further. He found that the ma- 
chine went too fast for the man at the plow 
handles to keep up with it. As another test 
the auto was attached to a mowing machine 
and a piece of ground which would have 
taken three hours to mow by horsepower 
was mowed in an hour with an automobile. 



A SIMPLE HOME-MADE SEED TESTER. 



A very satisfactory and yet simple seed 
tester for determining the per cent of seed 
which will grow can be made by any one. 
Mix the seed thoroughly and count out a 
hundred or so of the seeds, not making a 
selection but taking them as they come, says 
the Grain Dealers' Journal. 

Put them between a fold of cotton flannel 
and do not allow them to touch one another. 
Place the cloth on a plate, moisten it well 
but do not saturate it. Cover it with an- 
other plate and keep at a temperature of 




A Home-Made Seed Tester 
A, Closed B, Open 

about 70 degrees F. Take out the sprouted 
seeds every day, counting them. The good 
seeds will all have sprouted inside six days. 
The percentage that will grow can be de- 
termined from the total number sprouted. 



To keep a double-tube bicycle tire from 
slipping and pulling the valve stem it is 
only necessary to purchase a few common 




or 



m 




FIG.2 FIG, 3 

round head stove bolts (Fig. 2) just of 
proper length to reach through the inner 
edge of the casing and the rim of the wheel. 
Put the bolts in a vice and file to shape of 
Fig. 3. Care should be taken to make the 
heads as flat as possible and yet leave the 
edges perfectly round and smooth. 

Take your wheel with the tire on and 
mark accurately the points on both rim and 
tire at which bolts are to be placed. Six 
bolts for a wheel of 36 spokes is plenty, 
while for 28 and 32 spokes the number of 
bolts would have to be changed to make the 
spaces between them of the same distance. 

Drill holes in the rim, taking care to be 
exact, and also through the inner face of 
the tire. The inner tube should be removed 
while doing this, as it will be apt to get 
cut. The bolts can be let into the casing 
and worked around until they go through 
the holes with the head on the inside. Put 
the inner tube in place; lace up; apply ce- 
ment and when the tire is put on and nuts 
tightened up it is on to stay. The bolts will 
not prevent the tire from being removed for 
repairing punctures. 



Eighteen liours is now the railroad time 
between New York and Chicago when the 
train stays on the track. 



290 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HOW TOLL MESSAGES ARE TIMED. 



known 
graph, 
wonder, 
elapsed 



FROM 
AT -.-. 

TO -_ 

AT .-. 



The problem of timing long distance con- 
versations at a big busy telephone exchange, 
where a great number of such conversa- 
tions are held daily, might 
puzzle the novice who 
knows nothing of the ac- 
curate little apparatus 
which keeps tab on the 
minutes so exactly that 
it would be impossible to 
cheat the company. 

This little instrument, 
as the calcula- 
is a mechanical 
It prints the 
time without the 
least mental effort on the 
part of the operator fur- 
ther than to pull a lever 
at the beginning and the 
end of the conversation. 
"It mechanically subtracts 
the time of connection 
from the time of disconnection and prints 
the actual number of minutes and quarter 
minutes that elapse during the interval," 
says the American Telephone Journal, from 
"vhich this description is condensed. A sin- 
gle calculagraph can be vised for a large vol- 
ume of business and two telephone opera- 
tors seated at the same table usually have 
a calculagraph between them which they 
both use irrespective of the order in which 
the conversations come. 

At Fig. 1 is shown a 
standard toll ticket bear- 
ing a calculagraph Im- 
print which tells all that 
is required for the pur- 
pose. The right-hand 
dial shows the time of 
day the parties were con- 
nected for talking. A tri- 
angular pointer revolves 
around the outside of the 
dial to show the hour and 
the pointer within the dial 
indicates the minutes. In 
this instance it is 9:45 
a. m. The other dials 
record the elapsed time in 
minutes and quarter min- 
utes. The central dial or 
the one to the left of the 
line is one hour divided 
into 5-minute periods, while the left-hand 
dial on the card has a total of 5 minutes 
divided into quarter-minute periods. Thus, 



time spent in conversation is read on the 
two elapsed tinae dials. 

The mechanism of the calculagraph is de- 
tailed in Fig. 2, which shows how the cen- 
ter elapsed time dial is printed. At the top 



ELAPSED TIME 




riME 
CONNECTED. 



Pig. 1. Toll Ticket Showing Calculagraph. Imprint 

of a shaft, b, is permanently mounted a 
pointer die, a, which revolves with the clock 
mechanism. A forward movement of the 
handle, L, forces the shaft up and if a card 
is inserted between the inking ribbon and 
the platen an impression of the arrow- 
shaped pointer will be printed on it. A dial 
die, with a sleeve-shaped stem, d. Is also 
mounted on the pointer shaft, b, and re- 
volves with it. A forward movement of the 




FOOMT MOTION 

PRINTING TMt- 
POINTER - WHen 
COMVeRSATIOM 




fPQNT WOTlON ; 

HAHDLE- FOR ■• 
PRinTINCiTME- . 
DIAL - WHEN 
CONVERSATION 
STARTS- 



PLAM VIEW Of^ PRINTINO 
DIAL AHD POINTER 
DIES 
-PLATE/S ^^OACerOR TOLL TICKET 





POINTER SMAFT-^ 



Fig. 2. Mechanism of the Calculagraph 

handle, R, forces the stem, d, upward with- 
out lifting the pointer shaft and that opera- 
tion prints a dial like the central one ift 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



29i 



Fig. 1, but without the 
pointer. To make the dial 
and the pointer revolve 
together a connecting pin, 
e, is used, so causing the 
arrow to always point to 
the zero mark on the dial. 
Either the dial die or the 
pointer die can be forced 
upward separately with- 
out causing the other to 
make an impression. In 
practice the dial is printed 
at the beginning of a con- 
versation and the arrow 
at the end, both having 
moved forward during the 
interval so that the arrow 
when printed points to- 
ward the figures on the 
ticket which express the 
elapsed time. 

To operate the calcula- 
graph (Fig. 3) a ticket 
is inserted face down in the slot at 
the front of the instrument, with the top 
edge and the end of the ticket against the 
guide and stop. This is done at. the begin- 
ning of the toll conversation. Then the 
right-hand lever, E, is pushed backward and 
again pulled forward, each time to the limit 
of the movement. The backward movement 
gives the imprint which tells the time of 
day the conversation began and the forward 
movement prints the two elapsed time dials, 
but without the arrows. The ticket is then 
immediately removed from the slot, so that 
the calculagraph is free to be used for other 
records if needed. When the party talking 
has finished, the card for his conversation 
is promptly inserted in the ticket slot just as 
before and this time the lever, L, is pulled 
forward and the movement prints on the 
card and within the elapsed time dials two 
arrow-shaped pointers, which point toward 
the figures and division marks which indi- 
cate the elapsed time in minutes and quarter 
minutes. 

The printing mechanism of the calcula- 
graph is so adjusted that it in nowise inter- 
feres with the regularity of the clock. The 
work is performed without noise or jar and 
does not interfere with the free operation 
of the switchboard. 



To PRi/HT Ti/ne- 01^ Day 



RIBBOM IMDiCATOR 




•Toll TiCke-T 
FACe DOWN 

rOR PRINTIN* 



Fig. 3, Operating the Calculagraph 

HOLDS MILK PAIL WHILE MILKING. 



A New Jersey man who grew tired of 
holding the milk pail between his knees 
while milking has patented the device 
shown in the illustration. The pail fits in- 
to the frame nicely and the curved arms fit 
over the milker's legs above the knees, thus 




For Holding the Milk Fail 



supporting the weight of the pail. The cir- 
cular frame is adjustable to any size pail 
and the contrivance can be arranged to tilt 
the pail at any angle desired. 



AMERICANS USE PLENTY OF SALT. 



The Union Iron Works at San Francisco 
are to be enlarged and made the finest in 
the United States, if not in the world. The 
imm'ovements in the works are already 
under way. 



The production of salt in the United 
States for 1903 was 18,968,089 barrels (of 
280 pounds), valued at $5,286,988. The do- 
mestic consumption was greater than the 
production, as it usually is, being 20,062,- 
587 barrels. The United States ranks sec- 
ond in the production of salt. Great Brltaic 
being a little in the lead. 



292 



EN (CYCLOPEDIA 



DETACHABLE CYCLE MOTOR. 



May M^an the Solution of Individual Rapid 
Transit 



An English manufacturer has put on the 
market a detachable motor for bicycles. The 
motor is supported at one end by the bicy- 
cle — which may be of any make— and at the 
other by a single trailer wheel. The power 
is a small gasoline engine. The advantages 
of the arrangement are evident. First of all, 
the man who already has a wheel need buy 
only the motor part; the weight is carried 
so low that the outfit is not top heavy, as 
with present types of motorcycles, and 
there is very much less vibration and jar 
as the machinery is carried on the rear 
wheels. 

The flow of gasoline and the usual con- 
trol of the motor is entirely at the rider's 
command, being regulated by levers at the 
handle bar. 

The cost is not at all excessive, the price 
of the attachment complete being only $75 
to $80. One of these machines has already 
covered over 3,000 miles without repairs or 
apparent deterioration. The motor drives by 
a chain to the hub of the rear large wheel, 
and weighs 60 pounds. The total weight of 
wheel and motor attachment is thus under 
100 pounds, an amount which permits of 
easy handling. The Model Engineer, Lon- 
don, says there is a patent in England on 
the attachment but none on the engine as 
any suitable motor may be used. The ma- 
chine makes as high speed as any motor 
cycle, is a good hill climber and operates 
with engines of from 114-horsepower up. 

The attachment wheel facilitates rather 
than retards the steering, and inasmuch as 
no extra strain except that of speed is im- 
posed, present type bicycle frames are found 
to be amply strong. The supply of gasoline 
carried on the wheel illustrated is sufHcient 
for 100 miles. The only alteration in the 
bicycle to be used is a new hub for the 
driving wheel, and this is easily applied. 

Does this mean the solution of individual 
rapid transit by mechanical means for 
which hundreds of thousands In our large 
cities have been waiting so long? If the 
machine when it first appears can be sold 
for $75 is it not reasonable to expect that 
by producing in enormous quantities they 
can be made and sold at a fair profit for 
$50? Sewing machines dropped from $150 to 
$25; bicycles did the same. Any device 
which is capable of an universal sale war- 
rants large plants equipping to produce in 
large quantities. 



While there will doubtless be many im- 
provements the idea seems a good one and 
to possess staying qualities. The uses to 
which the machine can be put includes all 
that are now served by the bicycle and many 
times more. Every doctor could use one for 
emergency Avork, for he could cover several 
miles with such a vehicle while his horse 
was being put in harness. Police and fire 
departments, and workmen engaged in 
emergency repairs of all Ivinds would find 
it usable for large numbers of men. Worlc- 
meu of all kinds, clerks, professional men 
who need the fresh air, which a daily trip 
in good weather affords would swell the 
army of users. In addition the reduced 
price would appeal to thousands of pleasure 
riders. 



AUTOMATIC MEAL SCOOP. 



A correspondent in the American Miller 
says: 

For years we were troubled by the fact 
that our unbolted meal, when spouted into 
the bin in a steady stream, would separate, 
and require mixing to keep it even quality 
and weight. To correct this difficulty we 
contrived the "wrinkle" here sketched, and 
with the result that no matter how fast or 
how slow we grind, or how full the bin 



A 




'-' '. \ 



U, 



V 



Automatic Meal Scoop 

gets, our unbolted meal is always even. The 
contrivance is easily made, and costs but a 
trifle. 

The weight arm has a sweep of the dis- 
tance between points marked "0." Make 
scoop about 6 inches wide and 9 inches long 
by 6 inches deep. Hang so that stream 
strikes at center of top of scoop. Place bar 
across frame at points "0" to support and 
retard weight arm. Adjust weight so as to 
properly return scoop when empty and hold 
same in position till full. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



293 



SEEING BY WIRE. 



Two Senses Combined in the Telephone — See 
Over Miles of Intervening Space 



the inventor of the device, was a young man 
he worked in a glass factory at Bellaire, 
Ohio, and every day he took a long list of 



Seeing over the telephone! Looking into 
the face of the other fellow, miles away 
perhaps, and yet noting very fleeting change 
of expression. This is the invention which, 
unheralded, hardly to be credited, has star- 
tled the world more than did the transmis- 
sion of sound over miles of wires. In trans- 
milting sound the delicate little disk in 
the mouthpiece of the telephone passes the 
sound waves created by the spoken woi'd 
along the electrified wire to the disk of the 
receiver at the other end of the line where 
they repeat their message into the intent ear. 
But in seeing over the 'phone much more 
is involved. It is not the unchanging look 
caught and recorded by the camera; it is 
the active, intelligent semblance of life, of 
color, of action, substance and form, multi- 
tudinous combinations of waves of light 
and the transmission of these over miles of 
wires is what is involved in seeing by tele- 
phone. And yet the device that can per- 
form this wonder has actually been invent- 
ed and even now is carefully guarded froru 
the peering, eager eyes of a curious and 
unscrupulous world. 

When J. B. Fowler of Portland, Oregon, 





Telepbone by Which One Can See the Speaker at the 
Other End of the tine 



J. B Fowler 
(The man who made seeing by Telephone possible) 

orders for the factory over the 'phone. One 
night after being so employed for several 
hours during the day he dreamed that he 
was giving a theater party to a number of 
friends in Bellaire, but that the play was 
being enacted in Wheeling, W. Va., four 
miles away, and was presented to the party 
over the 'phone by means of a combination 
of wires, lenses and disks, the scenes being 
thrown by a stereopticon on a canvas while 
the voices came over the 'phone. This im- 
probable dream, this wild flight of slumber 
vision was the germ from which Mr, Fow- 
ler's invention grew— grew through long 
years, silently but persistently. 

The wonderful telephone in the home of 
the inventor appears to be very little differ- 
ent in its main features from the ordinary 
telephone. It is merely a box nailed to the 
wall from which projects a mouthpiece and 
a lens. What the connection with this lens, 
how the waves of light are transmitted, no 
one knows: that is the inventor's secret; 
the only information he will give being that 
it is entirely independent of the 'phone. In 
demonstrating, his daughter went to one 
end of the line two rooms away and on look- 
ing through the lens her face in color, con- 
tour and expression was plainly visible. x\s 
she spoke the motions of her lips were ap- 
parent and she dreAV various cards from a 
pack and held them before the lens and 
each one could be distinguished at the other 
end of the line. 

Mr. Fowler expects to perfect his inven- 
tion before giving it to the world. In his 



294 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



own words he hopes to do wonderful things 
with it. He says: 

"I am certain that it can be attached to 
the telephones of the city so that the peo- 
ple will be able to see the person with whom 
they are conversing. In time I hope to be 
able to so arrange it and enlarge its scope 
that a patron can sit at his desk or in his 
home and see a baseball game, a prize fight 
or a play at the theater with perfect ease 
and accuracy. I expect that it can be so 
perfected that the train dispatcher can sit 
at his desk and watch his trains swing into 
the different stations along the road and 
depart. In fact, the scope of its usefulness 
is unlimited, and I am confident of success, 
I have the principle, and time and study 
will improve it until it will be a thing as 
marvelous to the minds of the present gen- 
eration as was the first telephone to the 
generation of yesterday." 



PRICE OF RUBBER ADVANCING. 



Crude rubber now costs $1.20 a pound in 
New York, the principal receiving port for 
this much used commodity. Thus far no 
satisfactory substitute has been discovered 
for rubber, and the demand is steadily ex- 
ceeding the supply. The cultivated rubber 
trees in American and native plantations in 
Mexico have not yet come into bearing to 
an extent to relieve the stringency. In fact 
they are not likely to do so for years to 
come on account of the new inventions com- 
ing out which must use rubber, and to the 
increasing manufacture of articles which 
cannot be made of any other material. 

There are not hundreds, but thousands of 
articles in which no substitute for rubber 
has yet been found and for which no sub- 
stitute is likely. Electrical manufacture 
makes heavy demands; makers of overshoes 
and rain coats use hundreds of tons; auto- 
mobile tires have been the latest largest 
addition to the demand, while the multitude 
of small things from a rubber band to gar- 
den hose combine to produce requirements 
that are already enormous and constantly 
increasing. 

A rubber plantation costs money and sev- 
eral years to come into production, but 
Avhen once it does begin to yield returns 
they are large and very profitable. It has 
apparently been left to Americans to grasp 
the necessities and possibilities of the situ- 
ation and they are going at the matter in 
the broad-guage manner that is character- 
istic of their operations. The chief regret 



is that they cannot make the trees grow 
within their own borders. 

The production of rubber from the Ama- 
zon River district for the past year and ex- 
ported was: To Europe, 34,061,482 pounds; 
to the United States, 33,253,109 pounds. The 
total increase exported over the previous 
year was only 1,558,543 pounds. 



♦ ♦♦■ 



TRIMMING ARC LAMPS BY AUTOMOBILE. 



The position of lamp trimmer for a big 
lighting company in Philadelphia is one of 
comparative pleasure these days. Instead 
of making his rounds on foot carrying a 
ladder on one shoulder and a leather bag of 




Trimming Arc Ijamps by Automobile 

carbons from the other, he now has his 
chauffeur and rides in state. 

The Western Electrician says: The plat- 
form, when extended to its full height, is 
19 feet above the roadway, and it collapses 
to 14 feet. By means of this conveyance all 
the lamps on the bridge, which number 
128, can be attended to in half a day, which 
means a saving of 50 per cent in time and 
labor. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Trent Canal Hydratilic Lift I^ocK. 



295 



Raises 1,300 Tons— Only- One of its Kind in A.merica, and tKe 

Largest in tHe "World. 




Vieiv of tHe Hydraulic Ivift L>ocl£ from the Lo'wer R.eacH. 



Think of an elevator with the platform 
140 feet long and 33 feet wide, lifting 1,300 
tons 65 feet vertically; tliink again of the 
1,300 tons including a good sized steamer, 
its load of freight and passengers and the 
necessary water to float it, all being lifted 
together and the entire operation performed 
in only four minutes, and you have a good 
idea of one of the latest and most remark- 
able feats in modern engineering. 

The Peterborough hydraulic lift lock, 
which has just been completed and opened 
for commerce, is the only lock of this kind 
in America and one of but four in the world 
of which it is very much the largest and 
most interesting as an example of hydraulic 
engineering. 

The Trent canal is not, in the most exact 
sense, wholly a canal, as almost the whole 
distance from Lake Huron to the St. Law- 
rence is through lakes and rivers or on 
flooded reaches. The length of the route 
from the Bay of Quinte to Lake Huron is 
about 200 miles. When completed it is 



expected that only about 20 miles of this dis- 
tance will be actual canal. Where canalling 
is necessary the prism of the canal has a 
width of 50 feet on the bottom with side 
slopes in earth of 2 to 1, and in rock % to 1. 
The slopes in the earth are protected by 
broken stone placed in a notch cut into the 
slope. 

• The standard size of the locks is 134 feet 
long, 33 feet wide, with 6 feet of water on 
the sills — though all the lands bought so far 
for canal purposes have been surveyed and 
laid out to allow eight feet of water on the 
sills of the locks. To make all the work.s 
so far constructed of the same capacity, 
would only mean holding the Avater two 
feet higher on the sills of the locks by 
means of extra stop logs placed in the dams, 
and a slight extra expenditure for the pur- 
pose of adapting the present works to the 
increased depth of water. 

The hydraulic lift lock at Peterborough 
was built to overcome the fall in the waters 
of the river Otonabee between the two 



296 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



points, Nassau, about four miles nortli of 
the town, and Little Lake, a broadening of 
the river, opposite the town. The difference 
in elevation between the two points is 77 
feet, the river having that fall in the dis- 
tance indicated. Above Nassau and up to 
Lakefield between which points the fall in 
the river is very pronounced, the river is 
canalized and made over into several 
stretches of still water, with locks of the 
ordinary type between the stretches. Of 
the difference in level referred to above 
Nassau and Little Lake, 65 feet is taken 
care of by the lift lock, the remaining 12 
feet being overcome by a lock of the or- 
dinary type placed at the debouchure of 
the canal into the lake. 

The movement of the lock proper is based 
on principles long known and well estab- 
lished in the sciences of hydraulics and 
hydrostatics. Hydraulics relate to the water 
in motion. Hydrostatics to water at rest. 
If one takes a cube of iron, say four inches 
square each way, and drops it into a pail 
filled to overflowing with water, the piece 
of iron will sink and displace exactly as 
much water as will be equivalent to the 
bulk of the iron. If the iron were ham- 
mered or spun, into some form of vessel 
or dish that would float, then the piece of 
iron in its new form would displace water 
exactly equivalent to its weight. So that 
anything that sinks displaces its bulk of 
water and anything that floats displaces its 
weight of water. The application of this 
principle is seen in the filling of the cham- 
bers with water or with boat and water. 
Fill one chamber with water to the depth 
of 8 feet, in the other chamber place a 
barge and water to the same depth, and the 
load in both chambers will be exactly the 
same. Hence lockages may be effected with 
one barge or boat in a chamber, with barges 
in each chamber, or with the chambers 
containing water only. 

Calculation made of the cubical area of 
the chamber shows that the load of water 
is about 1,300 tons (about the equivalent of 
the weight of 13 of the heaviest loco- 
motives). The duty which the huge ram or 
piston is called on to perform exceeds this: 
There is the additional weight of the can- 
tilever or truss construction supporting the 
chamber, and the ram itself, in all about 
1,700 tons. 

The special functions of the Peterborough 
lock are, first, to overcome the elevation; 
second, the time in which this duty is to 
be performed, third, the quantity for a 
given number of lockages or maximum 



number of tons handled, avoiding a con- 
gested traffic. The question for the depart- 
ment of railways and canals to decide was 
whether the lift rhould be overcome by 
locks of the ordinary type, or by such form 
of lock as that under construction. If of 
the ordinary type then at least five locks 
would be required. When these were in 
use, boats and barges would have to wait 
until the five lockages had been effected 
before gaining access. To avoid such de- 
lay the locks would have been built in 
pairs, as is the case at Lockport, on the 
Erie canal. The cost of these ten locks 
would have far exceeded the outlay for the 
hydraulic lock. The time of lockage would 
have been a serious hindrance to traffic, the 
attendance a very serious item and the 
service would have been slower, continually 
interrupted, and the capacity of the canal 
at this point restricted. Hj^draulic lift locks 
are planned and built to serve the future 
as well as the present and to provide for 
expansion. 

The operation of the lock requires three 
men— a lockmaster, and two assistants or 
gatemen. The lockmaster will be in charge. 
The gatemen will be required, one at the 
lower end and the other at the upper, to 
open and close the gates, to inflate or de- 
flate the seal tubes between the ends of the 
chambers and the reaches, and to operate 
the capstans. It is also necessary for the 
gatemen to take charge of vessels at a dis- 
tance of about 200 feet on either side of the 
lock. The_ lockmaster, during operations, 
will be required to stay in his cabin, on the 
top of the central tower, where he will have 
full view of all that transpires, and also be 
in communication with both his assistants 
by a simple signal system. The lockmaster 
will have the principal levers before him 
and through an interlocking system will 
I'egulate all the workings of the locks. The 
levers for controlling gate engines and cap- 
stans are situated on the wall immediately 
above the respective macnines, convenient 
of access to the gateman. The interlocking 
system is so arranged that the lockmaster 
must set his levers in the proper order, and 
these having been set neither he nor his 
gatemen can err by using their levers at 
the wrong time. 

It is intended that the actual time re- 
quired in raising the chamber through the 
whole elevation will be about three minutes. 
But this will depend upon the adjustment 
of the main glands, the nicety of the work- 
ing of the guides and the manipulation of the 
main valve in the hands of the lockmaster. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



297 




General View of tHe Lrock 'witH tHe Xrent R.iv^ex> Valley in the I>is^:is^Ce 



In the European locks this part of the 
lockage is readily performed iu three or 
four minutes. An ordinary lockage will 
be conducted in this manner: Suppose 100 
tons of "surcharge"' has been found to give 
sufficient additional weight to the descend- 
ing chamber. The uppermost chamber will 
then be required to stop with its floor 8% 
inches lower than the bottom of the upper 
reach. On communication being established 
between it and the reach, it will receive 
from the reach 100 tons more than the 
lower claamber contains, assuming the 
depth In both reaches to be the same. The 
total operation to form the lockage, assum- 
ing that the gates adjoining the reaches are 
open and that the seal tubes between the 
chambers and reaches are inflated, will con- 
sist in hauling the vessel into the chamber 
and mooring her there securely, closing the 
gates, deflating the seal tubes, and opening 
the main valve between the presses. The 
heavier cliamlier will commence to descend, 
the motion being allowed to increase grad- 
ually by the gradual opening of the valve, 
until it reaches the maximum speed. At 
about three quarters of the stroke the main 
valve is slowly closed, communication be- 
tween the presses being entirely cut off 
when the end of the journey is reached. 
The change in elevation being made the 
seal tubes are inflated, the gates are opened 
and the vessel or vessels are free to go on 
their journey, after being towed out by 
the capstans. The surcharge contained in 
the descending chamber simply flows out 
into the lower reach, while a similar quan- 
tity to perform the next lockage is admitted 
into the chamber which has just reached 
the higher elevation. 



Statistics: Total height, 100 feet; height 
of lift, 65 feet; breast wall of lock, 40 feet 
thick, 80 feet high, and 126 feet long; 
weight of water in each chamber, 1,300 
tons; depth of water in chamber, 8 feet; 
each chamber is 140 feet long, 33 feet wide, 
9 feet 10 inches deep, steel; superstructure, 
concrete 26,000 cubic yards; pressure in 
operation, 600 pounds per square inch; ex- 
cavation commenced in 1896; concrete work 
commenced in 1900; cost, $500,000. 

The advantages claimed for the hydrau- 
lic lock over those of the ordinary type are 
saving of time, economy of water and in- 
creased capacity. With reference to capac- 
ity it will be noticed that vessels traveling 
in opposite directions may be locked 
through simultaneously. 



A "HOSPITAL TOWN." 



At a cost of approximately $8,000,000 
Vienna is to have the greatest hospital iu 
the world. It will cover an area of 2,400,- 
000 square feet, and will be in itself a small 
town having 40 separate buildings in all, 32 
of these being clinics and hospitals and 8 
offices and residences for the staff. 

There will be 18 complete and separate 
hospitals built on the pavilion or cottage 
plan and including sick wards, operating 
and lecture rooms. About 2,300 beds will 
be provided and each patient will have 
1,030 square feet of space. The clinics will 
all have flat roofs with gardens, for the 
benefit of consumptives in particular. The 
operating rooms will be magnificent and of 
an entirely new type. In clinics for infec- 
tious diseases a glass partition will separate 
the jjatient from students and professor. 



298 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Motor Transfer Service 




Colonial Auto Bus 



A Pittsburg transfer company 
now have in use four big colo- 
nial 'busses for transferring 
passengers and baggage. Each 
of the cars accommodates fifteen 
passengers comfortably, and has 
two folding side racks which 
can be let down for carrying 
luggage, and a folding rack in 
front for mail pouches. By leav- 
ing off the racks the vehicle can 
be converted into a patrol 
Avagon. 

The machine has a wheel base 
of 96 inches, 56 inches gage, and 
weiglis, complete, 3,580 pounds. 
The wheels have solid 4-inch 
rubber tires. 



MILITARY EXPERIMENT COST $500,000. 

One of the most interesting and also most 
expensive military tests ever made recently 
took place in Germany. It consisted in the 
erection of a strong, wide bridge over the 
Elbe by three regiments of military railroad 
builders in a few days' time. The bridge 
was built in sections which could be quickly, 
and easily put together and was capable 
of bearing heavy artillery and army trans- 
port. If one section of such a bridge is 
destroyed by shells or fire another can be 
quickly substituted. The bridge can be 
adapted to streams of any width. 

Every precaution was taken to keep 



outsiders from viewing the bridge or photo- 
graphing it. The cost of material for the 
structure and the military experiment 
amounted to $500,000. 



LARGEST TELESCOPE IN THE WORLD. 



The largest efficient telescope in the world 
is to be added to the equipment of Harvard 
University. The new instrument is 27 feet 
in focal length and has a 5-foot aperture— 
nearly twice as large as the Lick observa- 
tory telescope, which has a 36-inch aperture. 
The telescope will be used chiefly for photo- 
graphic work. 



Fire Hose to Fit Amy Hydrant 



Our readers will remember the 
prediction made at the time of 
the Baltimore fire, when fire 
companies from other cities 
were unable to connect with the 
Baltimore hydrants, owing to 
their hose couplings being of a 
different size. Such necessities 
are not. long unprovided in these 
days, and the cut shows a device 
now available which permits of 
hose connection to any hydrant, 
larger or smaller. This makes 
"connections" of all cities and 
towns interchangeable, and an 
absolutely tight joint can be 
secured in from two to seven 
seconds. The price of the 
coupling is $10. 




Universal Hose Connection 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A 'Windmill Automobile. 



299 



Strange Craft tKat Sails Best A-gaitist tKe 'Wind— Only MacHine 
of Its Kind in tHe Country- 



Somewhat of a novelty in the way of 
windmills is a traction windmill, contrived 
by Geo. C. Phillips, of Webster, S. D. There 
is but one of these machines in this coun- 
try. 

The frame on which the tower is built is 



right sizes and kinds. At first the vane was 
used, but as this would not hold the wheel 
in the wind when it was pulling hard, the 
gear was attached in such a manner that 
now the wheel can be regulated with the 
left hand and the speed, also. There are 



a triangle, the center beam is a 2x6, 12 feet times when both hands are needed and so 




"THe MacHine is 12 Feet I«on^.* 



long, resting on the guide wheels at the 
front and on the axle at the rear. Two 2x4's 
extend from this beam at about half the 
distance to the outside of the rear. Ten 
inches in front of the axle is another 2x6 
extending crosswise and resting on the 
beam and side bars thereby forming a tri- 
angle that will not rock. Two legs of the 
tower I'est on each beam. 

The wheel is an 8-foot steel pumper, re- 
modeled into a geared mill by using some 
old gear. The windmill is all built of old 
gear and it was quite a task to find the 



a screw is used for a steering device and 
it will stay where it is set. 

This machine runs best against the wind. 
Of course, it will move sidewise to the wind 
or with it, but ahvays the best against it. 
In a good wind it will move about three 
miles an hour and it could be made to run 
faster. 

The machine is 12 feet long, 9 feet wide 
and 12 feet high, weighing about 800 
pounds. The inventor does not take the 
machine on the road often as it frightens 
horses. 



300 ENCYCLOPEDIA 

STEAMSHIP EIGHT STORIES HIGH. MECHANICAL STENOGRAPHERS. 



A view of how the "Baltic," the largest 
vessel ever built, would look if cut in two, 
is given in the illustration which is taken 
from the American Machinist. The "Baltic" 
is 735 feet long, 75 feet wide, and is 35 feet 
longer and has 1,500 tons greater tonnage 
than the "Great Eastern." Her displacement 
is 40,000 tons; tonnage, 24,000 tons; can ac- 
commodate 3,000 passengers, and carries a 
crew of 350 persons. When at sea the ves- 
sel burns 235 tons of coal every 24 hours. 
When in the water the great depth of the 
ship is not apparent. The "Baltic" is ex- 
pected to earn 25 per cent on her cost. 



It is reported that a Cincinnati inventor 
has perfected a machine which reproduces 
in typewritten form the words spoken by a 
human voice into its receiver, including a 
vocabulary of 2,500 words and, if needed, 
can be adapted to the use of other words. 
The machine has a small copper disc for 
each of the 2,500 words and the spoken 
acts only on its particular disc, 
which, in turn, acts 
on the letters which 
|| spell its word. 

Proper names must 
be spelled out. The 
machine is operated 
by electricity. 



word 



SUN DECK <^ 

lal Class Smoke Room 
and Libi-ary 



PROMENADE DECK 

iBt Class State Rooms 

3ud Clafis Smoke Room and Libiur 



^Ji-ew Forwai-d l8t & 2iid Class State 

Roomn l&t Cla^ Saloon Amidships 

3i'd Cliisti Smoke Room Aft 



MIDDLE DECK 

and Class State Rooms and 3rd Class 

Mewi Room Amidships 3rd Cla% 



LOWER DECK 
Ueat Chambei-B & Cai-go Fo:'i 
Crew. and Coal Bunkera Amidships 
3rd Class Aft 



ORLOP DECK - 
Medt Cliainbers & Cargo For 

Coal Bunkers Amidships 
Meat Chambers & Cargo Att 



LOWER ORLOP DECK 
Cargo Foi-ward Coal Amidships 
Ciigo and Meat Chambei-s Aft 



HOLDS 

Cargo and Deep Ballast Tanks 

Forwaiil Coal Engines i- Boilers 

^mi'tsSips Deep BaJlast Tanks and 

Cargo Aft 




Cross Section of Steamship "Baltic 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 301 

Meclianical Fig^ures Almost Htiman. 



TalK in Several Languages, WalK, R.ide BicxcleS;, 'Write and 

BreatHe— A.ppear to be A.live, and Do A,ltnost 

f^verytHing but TKinR. 



It was a dingy loft-like place, away back 
in the rear and at the top of an old build- 
ing in Chicago. The door was closed and 
locked and the big sign of "Positively No 
Admittance" was anything but encourag- 
ing. The first attempts at the little push 
button appaiently accomplished nothing 
but to sound a big bell somewhere. After 
awhile the door was opened, and a little old 
man in the most ancient straw hat and 
puffing vigorously at a cob pipe, stood be- 
fore me. My errand was quickly stated and 
after looking me over for fully half a min- 
ute, he evidently relented and bade me enter. 
Fortunately I had happened on one of the 
days when he was inclined to talk. 

I followed along, threading my way in the 
dim light between ghastly rows of half- 
formed men and women. A motley assort- 
ment of arms and legs were hanging from 
the walls, and heads in various degrees of 
construction lay on l)oxes or tables where 
they had been carelessly thrown, and in- 
terspersed were hands and ears, while a 
nose was stuck on a nail which protruded 
from a packing box. 

Then came the work l)enches and here 
were tools the shape and' purpose of which 
I could not guess. Above the benches, 
which were covered with all manner of 
materials, rose long shelves crowded with 
the most motley collection of brass rods, 
springs of every imaginable description, 
screws, wires, bunches of human hair, 
handfuls of glass eyes, bottles with strange 
smelling chemicals, magnets, electi'ic mo- 
tors, storage batteries and hundreds of 
things the purpose of which no man could 
imagine. 

It was the work shop of a genuine 
twentieth centurj' mechanical wizard. 

"So you want to see the 'figgers,' do 
you?'' said he, as we paused at the end of 
the room where a little better light was 
struggling through some very grimy win- 
dows. 

"Well, I'm pretty busy, so you just talk 
to this young lady here, and she can tell 
you all about it," and his eyes seemed to 
twinkle mischievously, which at that time 
I attributed to the smoke from his stalwart 
pipe. 



"Nellie, tiais is one of those editors, Mr. 
Marshall Everett; you just tell him all about 
how we make 'em." 

In every feature she was beautiful as she 
sat leaning back in an arm chair, gowned 
exquisitely in garments of the latest style 
and evidently of expensive material. "Must 




"Nellie> Exquisitely Go%vned, Sat 
L>eanix\^ BacU in an Arm. Chair" 

be the old man's daughter, but what a place 
for her here," I thought as she rose in a 
queenly manner and gracefully extended 
her hand. 

"I am very glad to meet you," she said 
in a rather captivating tone. "Won't you 
be seated?" 

Her large brown eyes looked steadily at 
me through a bit of lace veil that certainly 
was very f.etching, but the unexpected 
meeting, and an indescribable sen.se of hor- 
ror at taking her hand which was decidedly 



302 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



clammy, combined to upset me somewhat, 
so I stammered out, "Yes, I guess so, thauk 
you," but remained standing. 

"Yes?" she remarked with a rising in- 
flection. 

"I came up to get acquainted with the 
figures, and learn something of their con- 
struction," I remarked. 

"It's a very pleasant day," she replied, 
with a suggestion of changing the subject. 

"And I am anxious to find out the me- 
chanical features of their construction—" 

"Are you fond of golf?" she interrupted. 

"And what motive power is employed, 
springs or electricity, or — " 

A burst of merry laughter, a coquettish 
toss of the head and a gesture which ap- 
parently dismissed the subject was my re- 
sponse. Then she swept majestically past 
me and stepping over to the window 
stopped and appeared to be looking out. 

"Well, how are you coming on?" said the 
old man who had returned. 

The young lady at this juncture turned 
and remarked — 

"I believe I would like to ride my wheel." 

"Crazy," I muttered, "and no wonder in 
such a crazy place as this." 

Her father cleared a space on the floor 
and bringing out a bicycle assisted her to 
mount, which she did in a rather amateur- 
ish manner, I thought. 

"All ready," he said, and thereupon the 
fair one began to circle the room, riding 
steadily and smoothly, but with increasing 
speed, until I trembled for her safety. Time 
and again she barely missed striking some 
obstruction, but each time flew past un- 
harmed. In about two minutes he reached 
out and brought the wheel to a standstill 
and assisted her to a chair. She appeared 
to be considerably out of breath from the 
violent exercise, and the gold locket on her 
bosom was rising and falling vigorously. 

"She took me two years, and cost $3,000," 
said he slapping me on the back, "but she's 
worth it." 

It was beginning to dawn upon me that 
this cheerful beauty with the highly in- 
formal manner was a mechanical creation 
of this strange genius. And so she was. 

Those work shops were a revelation. It 
seems impossible that a few inanimate ma- 
terials Could be made to assume so many 
of the human attitudes with such startling 
similarity to life. There were women in 
street, travelling and ballroom costumes, 
which, when touched by the 'wizard's hand 
cleverly imitated the manners of well-bred 



society, handling their fans with perfect 
ease and assuming the most natural atti- 
tudes. 

There were others who spoke in almost 
any language one might suggest. One 
woman chattered away as she perked her 
head first to one side and then the other, 
carefully applying a face cream to a com- 
plexion that was already without blemish, 
and actually breathed as regularly as 
though she were human. She will soon be 
seen in a store window and wondering 
crowds will block the sidewalks in front. 
In a comfortable chair in one corner of 
the room a man sat at ease and his gaze 
followed us as we moved about. He, too, 
was a talking figure. 

The figures have meant years of toil, a 
watchfulness of details almost too painstak- 
ing for even the twentieth century, and not 
only a great deal of mechanical ingenuity, 
but a thorough knowledge of anatomy, also. 
The result is most startling. The founda- 
tion of the figures is entirely of papier 
mache, making them durable and light, but 
the exposed parts of the body, arms, hands, 
shoulders and head are beautifully covered 
with wax, delicately and naturally tinted, 
as with the pink flush of good red blood. 
Natural eye brows, lashes and beautifully 
arranged hair add their part and then the 
figure is dressed with care and taste. 

For the talking figures small phonographs 
are placed within the chest and of course, 
records in any language, for any conversa- 
tion, song, speech, laughter or sound desired 
can be placed and replaced when wished. 
The talking mechanism is the least mar- 
velous feature of all. 

The details of construction and methods 
of joining the parts of the body, and es- 
pecially the application of equilibrium are 
carefully guarded secrets of the maker. 
Even if a skilled mechanic had a walking 
figure as a model it would be extremely 
difficult for him to make one just like it do 
the same movements. These secrets are the 
result of years of study and experiment. 
Some of the smallest details cost weeks of 
unbroken work, while others were the re- 
sult of scores of fruitless trials covering a 
period of years. This much I learned: The 
arms and legs are drawn up by specially 
constructed rubber cords which are set in 
action by the movement of a lever released 
by a magnet, all concealed within the limb. 
The extension or straightening out of the 
arm or leg is accomplished by wires moved 
by strong magnets connected to a light but 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



303 



powerful battery placed in the trunk of the 
body. In the walking figures the equilib- 
rium is maintained by a tube of mercury 
which passes from the front to the back at 
the base of the trunk near its center. All 
the motions of the eyes, head and limbs are 
electrically operated or controlled from del- 
icate apparatus in the head. A comprehen- 
sive, detailed explanation of just how all 
this is done would require many pages and 
be understood only by an expert electrician. 

One of these figures, now on exhibition 
on the stage, deports Itself in such a nat- 
ural manner that many an audience be- 
lieved it was being made sport of by a hu- 
man being. To overcome this impression 
the figure is disjointed before the people; 
its wig removed and a small electric light 
inside the head turned on to show that the 
figure is run by springs and batteries 
instead of gray matter. This figure walks 
out on the stage and makes a speech; is 
then mounted on a bicycle having curved 
handle bars, its feet placed on the pedals 
and without further assistance or support 
rides around on the stage. When removed 
from the wheel it walks to a blackboard 
and writes its name, "Elmer Miller," in a 
hand sufficiently legible to be read by the 
audience. 

The idea of these figures is being used 
for other purposes than displays in shop 
windows. Very life-like pigs which squeal, 
grunt and root around is one of these and 
a big packer has ordered several thousand 
of them for advertising purposes. 

The work of perfectly imitating both hu- 
man and animal life is certainly an am- 
bitious one, and has been favored with a 
remarkable degree of success. 

^—¥ 

KILLING WEEDS ON SHIPS' BOTTOMS 
WITH ELECTRICITY. 



The growth of weeds on the bottoms of 
ships and also the oxidation of the plates 
may some day be prevented by electrolysis. 
The plan is feasible in nearly every partic- 
ular save cost, and this may in time be 
decreased. 

The ship's plating is made the negative 
pole and insulated copper pieces the pos- 
itive pole of an electrolytic cell through 
which the current, generated by the ship's 
dynamo or a battery, is passed. Hydrogen, 
liberated from the sea water, prevents oxi- 
dation of the plates, whilst the resultant 
caustic soda kills all barnacles and weeds. 

The working cost, however, must be con- 
sidered. For a 300-foot ship, having 15,000 




A Mecbanical Figure l^HicH 

"Speaks Six I^an^tia^es 

ritxe«\tly" 

square feet of wetted surface, three am- 
peres would be required to keep pace with 
the scouring effect of the ship's passage 
through the water. To be effective the 
work must go on all the time, both day 
and night at a cost of about $5 an hour or 
$120 per day, a considerable sum to add to 
a ship's working expense. It would also be 
necessary to carry a 225-kilowatt dynamo 
outfit. 



THE GREAT AIRSHIP RACE. 



Considering the wide publicity of the 
affaii", the outcome of the airship race from 
the Fair Grounds to the Washington Monu- 
ment falls nothing short of ridiculous. 

For the wonderful aerial craft were sub- 
stituted two balloons, such as feature every 
circus that strikes our villages. The first 
balloon, after remaining in the air two 
hours and a half, came down in a cornfield, 
and was shipped back to St. Louis. The 
other wandered at will until in the vicinity 
of Wyoming, 111., and then came down. 



304 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



COFFERDAMS OF I-BEAMS. 



The New System of Interlocking Steel 
Sheeting 



A new system of building cofferdams, 
making deep water excavations or other 
deep excavations is being demonstrated in 
Chicago, and engineers everywhere are ask- 
ing themselves why someone did not do the 
work this way years ago. Like many an- 
other great thing, its simplicity is its most 
remarkable feature. The new system con- 
sists in bolting two channel irons together, 
forming a hollow iron tube, which is con- 
nected to the next tube by an I-beam of 




Cofferdain--CI\ica^o River 

standard size. The tubes and I-beams are 
driven by a pile driver, the same as piles. 

For this work nothing special is required. 
The I-beams are standard, 18 inches wide, 
and weigh 55 pounds to the foot; the chan- 
nels are 15-inch channels, weighing 33 
pounds per foot. 

The illustration shows the manner of con- 
necting the sheeting, which may be extend- 
ed to any desired distance. At the corners 
an L is formed by riveting two I-beams 
together. There is no limit, within reason, 
of the height to which the steel sheeting 







r/f/!i/i/m//jf///K///r/?77r, 




.|.^^.>.^.^.^^■^'.'.^^^^'.'.'.^'.^^ 



is made. In practice here in Chicago as little 
as four feet in earth has answered to hold 
the sheeting for 19 feet above; probably six 
feet has been the average here. Where the 
excavation is deep or the work of retaining 
heavy, inside bracing of timber must be 
used. The sheeting has been spliced and 
driven here to a length of 40 feet. 

One highly desirable feature of the 
method is the comparative ease with which 
the sheeting can be pulled when its purpose 
is served. It can then be used again in- 
definitely. The channels, beams and balls 
are all standard, and can be bought in any 
large city out of stock. For work in water 
the sheeting is made practically water-tight 
by filling the columns with clay. 

Already in Chicago the new method has 
been used with great success in a coffer- 
dam in the Chicago river, where the water 
is 20 feet deep and the excavation within 
the dam was 31 feet deep; also in tunnel 
work on the lake front, and to retain the 
foundations and earth beneath, under one 




mMJ///j//^^/f/^//,>//7, 



'//fA//f/f//^/^//^f?/ 



Plan of Comer 

of the large pumps in the Chicago avenue 
city pumping station. At this place we made 
a careful examination and in spite of the 
constant operation of the immense pump, 
which is of the walking beam type, there 
appeared no settling or cracks after three 



^^T??J^J//7JJ^///^^^///7/Jf?/'. 



S}SS.'^\\y.\\\\\\.\K\\\KKKy 



KS.WWNWNltl^^.SiZ^^ 



O' 



Plan Vie^v of Connecting SHeeting^ 




retaining wall can be carried. The wall is 
made by driving to a suitable depth; the 
bottom end is not sharpened, but will go 
through almost anything except, of course, 
stone. The nature of the soil has much to 
do with the length which must be left com- 
pletely in the ground after the excavation 



weeks' operation. The sheeting was driven 
within a few feet of the pump and an ex- 
cavation 40 feet square made to a depth 
of 20 feet. The new system, which is pa- 
tented, can be rented for periods of 90 days 
or moi'e and effects a great saving over the 
use of wooden piling. 



E N C Y C L O P E D 1 A _ 305 

Floating CKtircl:! a Boon to Seamen. 



At the foot of Pike street, New York, not 
far from where 
all the great 
lines of the At- 
lantic land their 
mighty volume 
of traffic^ floats 
an unusual lit- 
tle craft which 
year in and year 
out never leaves 
its m 00 rings 
and "yet is most 
popular among 
thousands o f 
sailors. It is 
in fact a float- 
ing church built 
upon a scow 85 
feet long and 
45 feet wide. 

The. structure was completed in 
1870 at a cost of $25,000 and since 
that time many are the seamen 
who have had reason to hless it. 
It is supported by the Protestant 
Episcopal Church Missionary So- 
ciety, of which notorious Bishop 




Interior of tKe Floating CHtxrch. 



Potter is president, and which also main- 
tains a reading 
room and gym- 
nasium for the 
sailors. Services- 
are held regu- 
larly in the lit- 
tle church and 
a steam launch 
70 feet long 
with a carrying 
capacity of 50 
persons brings 
the sailors from 
the vessels in 
the harbor to 
the church and 
returns them 
again. This mis- 
sion boat "Sen- 
tinel" also vis- 
outgoing ves- 



StAMEV'o 



^/SSlO^ 



its incoming and 

sels and those in port as well 

and ministers to the needs of the 

seamen. 

The gymnasium and reading" 
room are to the sailor like a bit of 
the homelife he often longs for, but 




Floating ChurcH for Seamen, Nevr YorK. 



306 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



qau rarely eDJoy. Last year 441 religious 
services were held in tbe floating church 
with a total attendance of 20,099 seamen. 




Missioix Soat **Sexktii\el" 

The good work of the society is especially 
apparent in the number of letters the sailors 
write to and receive from their families and 
friends and in tlie increased amount of 
money deposited for safe keeping. A Free 
Shipping Bureau obtains employment for 
sailors, and a Legal Aid Society investigates 
all complaints. 

♦ * » 

GEARLESS AUTOMOBILE IN FRANCE. 



A firm of French builders have produced 
an electric automobile which is gearless. 
The armature of the motor has for its shaft 
the axle of the vehicle carrying the driving 
Avheels. At a recent test the machine ran 
on speeds ranging from 4^2 to 19 miles an 
hour. The machine is noiseless. Gearless 
motors were tried in the United States on 
street cars some years ago but were not an 
entire success and few if any are now in 
use. 



MANUFACTURES POLES 



So far as good straight poles are con- 
cerned, it will matter little hereafter if our 
forests deteriorate and the trees grow 
crookedly. A big factory, equipped with the 
finest machinery of its kind, for manufac- 
turing poles which are stronger than they 
were in the natural state, has just been es- 
tablished at Little Rock, Ark. 

The lathes take a 30-foot stick and if it 
is crooked it is straightened on the tenon 
and socliet plan. Each joint is straightened 
by an iron band imbedded in the wood 
around it. The poles can be built to lieights 
of 50 or 60 feet if desired and are shipped 
.in sections. They are built from any length 



of timber, yellow pine being used, but are 
not jointed under 30 feet. The base is made 
separately in the form of a sleeve into 
which the pole slips. The base is creosoted 
to preserve the wood and the entire pole is 
chemically treated and painted either rec* 
or green. In the United States 33,000 poles 
are used per day. 

— '■ ♦ * » 

AUTOMOBILES THAT RUN ON RAILROAI> 
TRACKS. 



The railroad companies are not likely tc 
look with special favor on the new steel- 
flanged wheels which are a recent English 
invention, and which enable an automobile 
fitted with them to travel safely and with 
great speed on a steam railroad track. 

Charles J. Glidden, who is attempting to 
encircle the globe in his auto, has received 
a set from London, and with permission al- 
ready obtained from the Canadian Pacific, 
will use that track across the continent, 
starting from Minneapolis. The auto will 
follow a passenger train at a respectful 
distance, and will be in charge of one of 
the company's conductors aL- long as it is 
on the road, which it will be for 2,000 miles. 
Train orders will issue the same as for any 
extra train, and it will run as a second sec- 
tion of a regular passenger train. 

The Automobile says: "This is the first 




"No Steeriii^ Necessary** 

occasion on Avhich a regular road touring 
car has been fitted with flanged wheels for 
railway travel. The wheels are stoutly 
made of ash and closely resemble the or- 
dinary automobile wheels, except for the 
rims. Each wheel weighs 250 pounds." 

Mr. Glidden has sent several barrels of 
gasoline ahead to insure a supply at places 
where autos are unknown, and expects to 
average 30 miles an hour while running. 
No steering will be necessary, as the wheels 
will follow the rail. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



307 



Portable Jails in WHicH Convicts are Caged 

at NigKt 










v\\ 












A. Portable Steel Convict Ca^e 



In many of the southern states convicts 
who work on the public roads by day, often 
some distance from the jail, are now caged 
for safe-keeping at night, instead of being 
returned several miles to the jail or placed 
under an expensive and uncertain guard. 

Portable steel cages are used for this pur- 
pose. Each cage is 14 feet long, 3 feet 6 
inches wide and high enough at the en- 



trance for the prisoner to stand erect, while 
the ends which are equipped with four 
bunks each, are not so high. The floor, ceil- 
ings and ends of the cages ai"e made of 
heavy steel, while the sides are of 3/16x2- 
inch steel bars, set obliquely at right angles 
to each other and riveted together by %-inch 
rivets. Tlie cages are easily drawn by two 
horses. 



RAILWAY RUN OF 245% MILES MADE 
DAILY WITHOUT STOP. 



The longest non-stopping railway run is 
made twice daily in England between Pad- 
dington, a suburb of London, to Plymouth, 
Truro, Falmouth and Penzance down in the 
Devonshire and Cornwall district. To re- 
alize how great this distance to be made by 
established daily runs without stop one has 
but to take a map of England and trace the 
course of the Great Western road over which 
the run is made. 

The morning express leaves Paddington 
at 10:10. The average speed of the express 
is 55.6 miles an hour and this speed is main- 



tained despite the fact that thei'e are grades 
of 1 in 43 and 1 in 48; that through Bath 
and the five Dawlish tunnels the speed must 
slaclven to 15 miles, to 10 miles around Bris- 
tol and 5 miles through Exeter. The great- 
er portion of the distance is comparatively 
easy, however, and in places a speed of 
from 65 to 69 miles an hour is maintained. 
The I'oute passes through London, Reading, 
Bath, Bristol, Exeter and Plymouth, where 
the first stop is made; then on to Triu'o, 
F'almouth and Penzance. The corresponding 
return run is also made daily. 

No other road in the world has an estab- 
lished daily non-stopping run so long as 
this, though there are occasionally special 
runs made which are longer. 



308 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Adirondack Forest Fires Largely tKe Work 

of Incendiaries 



The report of the U. S. Bureau of Fores- 
try for 1903 states that the forest fires in 
the . Ailirondacks which destroyed about 
600,000 acres of timber and were fought at 
an expense of $175,000, were in many in- 
stances started by patriotic New Yorlcers 
from various motives, usually personal 
greed. Prol)ably 75,000 acres were fire-swept 
by reason of fires deliberately started, in 
some instances they were started by men 
who found that fighting fires at $2.00- per 
day was more profitable than their usual 
employment; small boys who found pleasure 
in the excitement kindled others; hunters 
started fires in localities where they wished 
the green grass to attract the deer in the 
spring; berry pickers had found the fires 
favorable to the growth of berry bushes; 
ginseng gatherers' work was made easier 
thereby, and there was an instance where 
a fire was started without any apparent 
motive and where, had the wind veered, the 
incendiary would have suffered a loss. One- 
half of the fires due to carelessness were 
caught from locomotives. Spark arresters, 
such as were recently described in Popular 
Mechanics, would have prevented much of 
the loss. 

Of all the game which suffered, perhaps 



the trout fared the worst, several bushels 
of the dead fish being washed up in one 
place. Two boys waded into Boquet river 
and captured 92 brown trout which were 
hardly able to move. 

Usually the points to be protected were 
divided into districts, each under a deputy 
warden in charge of the men who fought 
the fires. The method of fighting surface 
fires was to clear a wide path of litter. If 
water could be obtained this path was wet 
down and shovelfuls of sand were thrown 
on burning wood. Young spruce or balsam 
were used to thrash out burning grass in 
the clearing. From the path so made the 
men fought the fire. Usually the presence 
of duff made trenches 1 to 4 feet wide neces- 
sary, sometimes such trenches completely 
encircled the fire. 

Back firing was necessary in cases where 
the fires were too hot for men to fight. 
Trenches were dug and along the side of the 
approaching fire another fire was started, 
burning away from the trench and meeting 
the coming fire at a distance great enough 
to rob its fury of some of the danger. 

There have been some prosecutions of in- 
cendiaries, one man was sent to the state 
penitentiary; he had started 24 fires. 



ELECTRIC DOUBLE 
WHIRL. 



The electric double 
whirl is a new feature 
for parks and pleasure 
resorts. It is operated by 
a 35-horsepower elec- 
tric motor and combines 
the forward motion of 
a merry-go-round with 
the rolling action of a 
Ferris wheel. There 
are six of the wheels 
each having six seats 
carrying two passen- 
gers. The sensation of 
the double motion, 
which is an unusual 
one, is said to be quite 
pleasing and the first 
machipe now in opera- 



1 .'---£: ^^ 








: ^niiiii 


^gugmgi^ 



THe "Double VI'Kirl," a Deli^Htftil Amusement 

Device 



tion in Chicago has become very popular, hundreds of electric lights which form a 
At night it is brightly illuminated with kaleidoscope of brilliant colors and forms. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



309 



Traction £ii^ine Travels in tHe Air 

Engineer Refuses to Leave His Post and Rides IVitK His 

MacKine 



Suspended by a little %-incli wire rope, 
so liigli in tlie air that it seemed a com- 
paratively small object, a huge traction en- 
gine, weighing six tons, crossed the Miami 
river at Dayton, 0., by cable to the second 
pier of the new Third street bridge now 
under course of construction. The engine 
was needed at the spot to pump the water 



to the progress of his strange load. The en- 
gineer of the traction refused to leave his 
post even during the trip, and so he made 
the passage high in air, standing on the 
footboard of his engine. Steam was on, and 
he was able to signal frequently to the men 
below, by means of the whistle on the en- 
gine. It was one of the most imusual trips 




Xrai&sportin^ a 6«Xon Traction £ngii\e by Cable 



from the cofferdam and the cable solved 
the problem for the bridge contractors, 
Hoglen & Kline. 

Two tall towers support the cables on 
which hang travelers used to transport all 
material to any spot where it is required. 
Back of each of the two towers is a double 
connected drum controlling the two wii*e 
ropes which hang under the cable. The top 
rope pulls the traveler block back and 
forth; the lower rope raises and lowers the 
hoisting block which hangs under the trav- 
eler block. A tackle was fastened to the 
engine and it was raised and transported 
on the little rope, which, however, has car- 
ried eight tons safely. The engineer, who 
ran the drum had the receiver of a telephone 
strapped to his ears enabling him to receive 
directions from the other end of the wire as 



ever made by a traction engine, but was ac- 
complished in safety. 



LIPTON AGAIN IN THE RACE. 



Sir Thomas Lipton has announced that it 
may be he is stubborn, but he cannot admit 
that he is beaten and will again challenge 
for the America's cup. Last year, after the 
third successive defeat in the international 
yacht race, Sir Thomas declared that it was 
his last attempt. This year he will build 
a new yacht, the Shamrock IV, for the oc- 
casion and declares that while his design- 
ers believe the new rules will add to his 
chances of success, he himself would pre- 
fer to race under the old and more stringent 
conditions. This would indeed make a more 
gratifying victory, but it is to be feared that 
Sir Thomas will never achieve It, 



310 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



SAFETY DEVICE FOR MINERS. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON'S FIRE ENGINE. 



A recent French invention for use in 
mines subject to deadly gases, enables an 
inspector to walk fearlessly into chambers 
fllled with fumes one breath of which mean 




L/ife Saving Device 

instant death. The apparatus which is car- 
ried on the back, is set in action by press- 
ing a button and immediately begins to 
produce sufficient oxygen to supply the re- 
quirements. Rubber tubes conduct the gas 
to a rubber bag carried on the breast and 
which is. a part of a tight-fitting helmet 
much like that worn by a diver. The de- 
vice is also suitable for firemen working in 
dense smoke or rooms filled with the fumes 
of deadly chemicals. 



POLITENESS PAYS. 



It frequently happens that clerks, and 
some others also, in answering a business 
call over the telephone, fail to reply with 
the same politeness which they would had 



When Using This Telephone 

REMEMBER that a stranger is at the other end of the line. 

REMEMBER that the tone of your voice may make him a 
customer or drive him away. 

MAKE a customer of him and yoo increase your useful- 
ness to this office. 

THEfiEFORE, when using this telephone always be polite, 
agreeable, accomm xlating and patient. , 

ACT, whan you answer a call, as though it were the only bit 
of wjrk you are called upon to do aU day, and do it ia an 
absolutely perfect manner. 



the customer called in person. The accom- 
panying suggestion has been printed and 
distributed to its patrons by a telephone 
company in a western city. 



Up until the time George Washington 
left to take command of the Continental 
army he was a member of Friendship En- 
gine Co., of Alexandria, Va., which was 
organized in 1774. When he left he pre- 
sented the company with a fire engine 
which was still in use many years after 
Washington's death, says the Firemen's 
Herald. 

George had a reputation for prompt and 
efficient action, as we all know. In the last 
year of his life, 1799, there was a fire and 
this same engine was poorly manned, while 
many Idlers stood by, unwilling to soil 
their clothing. Gen'l Washington w^as there, 
too, and dismounting, rebuked the loafers, 




M^asbing'ton Seized the BraKe' 



and seizing the brake, helped work the en- 
gine. There was no lack of help after that. 
The illustration is taken from an old print 
made at the time of the incident. 



MOST ENORMOUS SCALES EVER USED- 
WEIGHED THE SUNS CORONA. 



Would you believe that 25,000,000 tons or 
50,000,000,000 pounds could be a light weight 
for anything? Well, it is, or at least so de- 
clares the great Swedish astronomer. Pro- 
fessor August Svante Arrhenius, who has 
recently weighed the sun's corona, or the 
luminous field surrounding the sun, and who 
declares himself surprised that the weight 
is no greater. Professor Arrhenius made 
the atmosphere, the temperature and the 
telescope his scales and a mind long trained 
for solving solar problems did the rest. 

Professor Arrhenius lias settled severa' 
other light problems which had long puzzled 
astronomers. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

L/tincli Counter Car a Great Hit 



311 



Passengers on the Pere Marquette trains 
between Chicago and Mieliigan resorts have 
enjoyed a novel and happy feature of rail- 
way service the past summer. At the end 
of the week many business men rush from 
their offices just in time to catch the noon 
train and having no time for lunch before 
leaving the city. To meet the requirements 
of these hungry patrons would have neces- 
sitated the running of several dining cars 
to each train had not Mr. H. F. Moeller, 
general passenger agent at Detroit, evolved 



urns located centrally and overhead water- 
tanks at each end of the shelving. Under 
the counter are sinks with hot and cold 
Avater. Sixty people can stand at the 
counter, while the car will hold from 150 
to 200 persons. There are no stools and no 
one is allowed to loiter. The platforms of 
the car are protected by railings and it 
can only be entered from other cars. 

Anything common to other lunch coun- 
ters may be had on the car; doughnuts, pie, 
sandwiches, ice cream, lemonade, milk, 




A LrtxncK Counter Car 



the brilliant idea of fitting up a lunch car 
Avhich would accommodate a goodly num- 
ber quickly, easily and at popular prices. 

An old parlor car was used for the pur- 
pose and a counter 3 feet 9 inches high, 16 
inches wide and 42V2 feet long with exten- 
sions at the ends running to the side wall 
was built in it. This counter is of pine, 
stained and finished to match the car, and 
has a walnut top. At each end c^f the 
counter 6 feet of space is left and 3^ feet 
at the side. Behind the counter along the 
wall were built lockers, cupboards and 
shelving with steam heated tea and coffee 



coffee, etc., and each article is listed at 10 
cents. 



To obtain the same heating value from 
wood and coal it takes two and one-half 
times as much wood in weight for each 
square foot of grate surface as it does of 
coal. In other words, the heating value of 
one pound of coal is equal to that of two 
and one-half pounds of pine wood. 
♦-»-♦ 

A trolley dining car is a new institution 
on the Aurora, Elgin and Chicago third-rail 
interurban line. 



312 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



COLD STORAGE PLANT ON RAILS. 



A portable cold storage plant is in opera- 
tion on the Trans-Siberian railroad. From 
the first impression of ice and cold that 
usually attaches to the very word "Siberia," 
anything to produce artificial cold would 
seem superfluous. Nor was the new method 
a war necessity, but rather a plain busi- 



Ice and Refrigeration says: "As the ears 
used for carrying the butter Avere on the 
ordinary freight car pattern, with doors on 
the sides, the brine pipe was necessarily 
placed beneath the roofs. The cars are in- 
sulated with double boards and paper be- 
tAA^een, in connection with mineral wool. 
The doors are not opened from the time of 
loading until the end of the trip." 




Side Elevation Refrigerating Car 




Caiin 
rn 

Machinut 



Plan of Refrigerating Car 



ness proposition to transport butter, eggs, 
poultry and other perishables over the thou- 
sands of miles which separate the termini 
of this road. 

The system is comparatively simple. 
The cooling plant occupies one car from 
which the cold brine is pumped through 
connecting pipes to the cars immediately 
ahead and behind. The plant, which is op- 
erated by a gas engine, is not unlike plants 
for similar purposes employed in cold stor- 
age warehouses. The machinery is kept in 
constant operation during the trip, main- 
taining a temperature in all the cars sup- 
plied with the service at from 35% to 39 
degrees F. The ventilator is run only when 
the train stops and is for the purpose of 
cooling the condenser. A sleeping compart- 
ment is partitioned off at one end of the 
car where the two men in charge sleep. 



GOVERNMENT TRIES NEW SYSTEM OF 
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 



The first of a series of experiments with 
the American system of wireless telegraphy 
was made on the United States cruiser "To- 
peka" a few days ago, when it carried the 
delegates to the American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers up the Hudson river. 
The instruments for the system were in- 
vented by Professor Fessenden, of Washing- 
ton, and naval officers believe the system 
is superior to that now in use on American 
war ships. The "Topeka" was equipped 
with instruments and wireless stations were 
established at the navy yard and Navesink 
Highlands, N. J. The "Topeka" has been 
specially detailed to conduct these tests and 
will make a long-distance test of the ap- 
paratus, soon. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 313 

Preparatory Work on tKe Panama Canal 



TKe Boneyard of France to be R.eclainied — IVill R.ene°<v Life 

of A.xnericai> Commerce and Industries »£xp«cc xo 

MaKe HealtK Resort of a DeatK Bog' 



The great engineering feats of a nation 
are tlie athletics by which she renews and 
develops her strength. On such a course of 
training, which will probably cover a 
decade, the United States has just entered, 
the seat of action being the little isthmus of 
Panama. 

The first step was the summarizing of the 
conditions, chiefly climatic, to be dealt with. 



price of her failure. Altogether, France ex- 
pended $20,000,000 in machinery and appli- 
ances for digging the canal. There are 
2,431 buildings on the isthmus but these 
would not house all the machinery sent 
there at the time. Many of these buildings 
were hospitals and executive quarters and 
will be used again by American engineers 
and officials, but of the machinery, that 




Old Dredges at tHe Pacific Terminus of the Panama Canal 



and for this purpose William Bartley Par- 
sons, one of our greatest engineers, made a 
thorough inspection of the canal zone. John 
Findley Wallace is to have the active super- 
intendence of construction. The second 
step, and this too is now under way, com- 
prises the specifications and plans for the 
construction of the big canal, beginning 
with the smallest appliance required and 
ending with the completed channel which 
at the spot where it severs two continents 
will also unite two mighty oceans and will 
divert the accustomed courses of the fleets 
of every nation. 

The canal zone in its present state is little 
more than a graveyard of French ambitions. 
Millions of dollars of the wealth of that 
nation are buried there and the graves of 
many of her most promising manhood tell 
better than words can how great was the 



which can be used will not exceed in value 
$2,000,000; the rest is a total loss to France. 
This is due partly to the fact that the ma- 
chinery is now out-of-date, but aside from 
that, France purchased lavishiy— extrava- 
gantly— machinery which was already out- 
of-date and which was not sufficieniiy power- 
ful to perform the work. But the greatest 
cause of the deterioi'ation has been the cli- 
mate. Iron and steel, unless the most care- 
ful precautions are taken, are no rcore proof 
against the hot, humid atmosphere of the 
isthmus than if they were the rrailest of 
substances. With the famous Cuiebra cut, 
France abandoned miles on mi\es of steel 
rails piled to a height of six feet; numer- 
ous rows of Belgian locomotives, too small 
for their purpose; acres of land set apart 
only as yards for hundreds of car wheels, 
huge buckets, scoops, engines, dredges an^ 



314 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



appliances of every nature and description 
all subject to a common fate and few which 
will ever serve their original purpose. 
Many of these heavy articles are buried 
from five to seventeen feet in the soft silty 
soil in which they had sunk deeper every day. 
If unearthed, one might cut their outer sur- 
faces into small pieces like bits of rubber 
or cork. Some of the costly houses on the 
isthmus are built on foundations of $60,000 
worth of machinery! Stable foundations for 
buildings are hard to get and what more 
natural than that the machinery strewn 
everywhere should be put to the only pur- 
pose it could serve? The moisture coats 
every bit of exposed metal deep with rust. 
Wherever a bit of earth is overturned or an 
excavation is made a white mist rises from 
the soil— a mist which bred disease and 
dealt death in the camps of the French and 
also wrought ruin to their costly equipment. 
A striking exception to this general ruin 
is one of the big machine shops found hid- 
den away in the brush near Bas Matachin. 
When the place was cleared sufficiently to 
allow an investigation it was found that the 
shop was complete and well equipped. It 
consisted of a machine shop, boiler shop. 



blacksmith shop, locomotive erecting shop, 
planing mill, car repair shop and foundry. 
The machinery and material in this instance, 
after having been stored away for more 
than 20 years, were still in average good 
condition and in the latter part of July the 
shop was in working order and the wheels 
began to roll. 

Machinery and material well housed in 
good shops are, of course, better protected 
from the elements than are huge derricks, 
piles of rails, scoops, dredges, locomotives, 
etc., for which no proper storage could be 
provided because of the lack of lumber. 
Twenty years in the open air during all 
kinds of weather in anj^ climate would have 
its effect on most machinery. The lack of 
lumber, the engineers declare, is their 
greatest handicap in the canal district 
Everything else is plentiful, but lumber is 
hard to get at any price. 

The methods of the United States will in 
nowise resemble those of France. The most 
startling change prpjected will be the trans- 
forming of this wild, enervating death bog 
into a habitable country which for several 
months of the year will be a popular health 
resort. Two great sanitary innovations 




Present Appearance of the Famous Ctilebra Cut 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



315 




Cxcavatinfi MacHinery and Old Railways on tHe Route of the Canal 



will aceomplisli this result, it is believed. 
Such an elaborate and carefully planned 
system of sewers will be laid as no 
city of our New "World can boast, and also 
miles on miles of iron piping for carrying an 
abundant water supply. On these matters 
more than on anything else depends the 
success of the Panama canal. Add to tuis 
an active war for the extermination of the 
mosquito which will be waged at any cost. 
It is now established that the human body 
is infected with yeJlow fever only through 
mosquito bites and this fact alone makes 
the mosquito war important. The governor- 
general of the canal zone has called on the 
canal commission for 100,000 yards of gal- 
A-anized steel wire gauze, not coarser than 
17 meshes to the square inch, to be used as 
a protection against the mosquitoes. The 
De Lesseps houses at Cristobal will require 
2,000 yards, 20,000 yards will be used to en- 
close hospitals and 75,000 yards for houses 
along the canal zone. Some of the swamps, 
which are breeding places of the insects, 
will be drained, others will be treated with 
chemicals and in still other localiites the 
water level will be raised by the Bohio dam. 
Numerous new electrical devices will also be 
experimented with. 



The most pronounced marks of modern 
methods will be found in the fact that 
wherever feasible and practicable electrical 
machinery will be used. Compressed air and 
steam will be employed to an extent but the 
electrical devices will far outnumber these. 
Fully a year's time will be required for 
selecting and designing the machinery to be 
used. This work will be so complete that 
the whole force on the canal can work in- 
dependent of the rest of the world for a 
number of years. Numerous repair shops 
will be established, equipped in every par- 
ticular. Duplicate parts of much of the 
machinery will be provided and in many in- 
stances where the wear and strain are great 
the entire machine will be sent in duplicate. 
Plants where the engineering corps can 
forge parts Avill also be installed, so that no 
delay can possibly occur in the work which 
at best will cover a number of years. The 
whole outfit will be figured out accurately 
before it is shipped. Fuel will be one of the 
prime factors in determining the nature of 
the machinery in every case. Wood is out 
of the question as an exclusive power-pro- 
ducing fuel; coal is too high-priced in Pana- 
ma and water-power is to no great degree 
available. Liquid fuel, it is estimated, will 



316 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



be the cheapest and best, it being possible 
to deliver Texas oil at the isthmus at about 
a dollar a barrel. 

The old French dredges and steam shovels 
will be used for secondary work, the new 
dredges and shovels will be twice as large 
as the old ones. Cable ways extending from 
steel towers will stretcli across the canal at 
frequent intervals. These cables will be 
wonderful affairs irrespective of anything 
else. The motor that operates the hoist Avill 



convey 90 cubic feet of excavated material 
at the rate of 1,000 feet per minute. 

Roughly estimated, there are 45,000,000 
cubic yards of material to be excavated. 
Steam dredges and shovels by dozens, and 
steam and electric derricks and cranes will 
be employed. Solid rock will be cut through 
by means of compressed air and electric 
drills, and electric batteries will set otf 
dynamite cartridges for exploding rock. Spe- 
cial processes for rendering all the metal 




Old Abandoned DerricKs on tHe Panama Canal 



be located on a platform on one of the tow- 
ers, and ofttimes the man who operates the 
dump will be a quarter of a mile away from 
the excavating place. The hoist can be 
operated to fulfill any need. It can be ele- 
vated to any height desired and run to any 
part of tlie line wished. The whole corps 
will be kept in tovich by means of electric 
signals and telephonic connections between 
the entire system of cables will be estab- 
lished. The skip on most of the cables will 



parts of this vast amount of machinery rust- 
proof and moisture-proof will be employed. 
In such a climate the electrical machinery 
has proven more serviceable than steam and 
it is believed that electrical markets all over 
the country Avill receive a great stimulus. 

The time it will require to finish the canal 
is estimated at from six to twelve years, 
but these estimates are uncertain. John 
Findley Wallace says it depends not on the 
amount of material to be excavated, but on 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



317 



the amount of work men can do in that 
climate. Negroes will be the chief laborers, 
and fully 20,000 will be required whereas 
there are now about 1,000 available. The 
laborers will be clad in the fewest garments 
consistent witli decency and even then 
many of tliem will die of heat and exhaus- 
tion. So far as cost is concerned the coun- 
try is assuming a burden which will not, for 
a generation at least, be self-sustaining 
though many indirect pi'ofits will accrue. 
Most of the estimates place tlie total cost at 
approximately $200,000,000, but no one 
counts the cost and no one thinks of failure. 
In the next few years this great project may 
bring financial wreck to many; Panama may 
be tlie last resting place of some of the 
briglitest and bravest of our laud and many 
anxious eyes will be turned thither for long 
days and nights, but all these are for the 
country's good. Panama will be a school 
where many valuable lessons will be learned 



and undoubtedly many valuable inventions 
be given to the world. The canal will be an 
advertisement for American machinery and 
South America, tliat Eldorado of the manu- 
facturer, will be affected. The saving in the 
route from New Yorli to Australia and east- 
ern Asia will be so great tliat whereas the 
European countries now have the advan- 
tage over us, we will tlien have the advan- 
tage. But greater than all these financial 
benefits, it is conceded, is the sentimental 
aspect of the case. The two shores of our 
broad land will be united by a direct water- 
way, and in times of war the advantage is 
obvious. In fact, it was tlie dashing trip 
made by the "Oregon" during the war with 
Spain which made the need of a shorter 
water route so apparent. These, ratlier than 
any pecuniary considerations, are tlie mighty 
issues and near interests that have inspired 
the Aniei'ican people to talvo up with glad 
heai'ts the burden of the Panama canal. 



Motor Boats Race Across Kn^lisH CHannel 




The "Mereedes IV" Under Pull Headway 



Motor boat racing is quite the fad now 
on the other side, and is already dividing 
honors with the automobile contests. On 
August 8 there was a spirited race across 
the English Channel, which was won by 
the "Mercedes IV." This boat made the trip 
from Calais to Dover, a distance of 22 nau- 



tical miles, in one hour, seven and two-' 
fifths seconds, a record never beaten but 
once, and that was by tlie 9,000-horsepower 
turbine steamer "Queen." The "Mercedes 
IV." has a 90-horsepower Mercedes motorand 
the machinery was protected from splash- 
ing water. She carried a crew of three. 



5l8 



E N C; Y C L O P E D I A 



A TEN-HOUR CLOCK. 



Labor-Saving Device for Computing Time 



This 10-lioiU' clock saves time and labor 
in computing the time of the employes in 
a Philadelphia factory. It was made from 
an ordinary time-keeper, the only difference 
Iteing' the new dial. Avhicli was painted on 
white paper and pasted over the one al- 
ready there, and the year ratio between the 




Ten-Hour Clock 

hour and minute hands changed from 12 to 
10. The clock then read in hours and 
tenths of hours. When work starts in the 
morning (in this shop it is 7 o'clock) both 
hands point straight up at "0." When the 
whistle blows the clock is started by pull- 
ing on the rope, shown in the cut. At noon, 
when the whistle blows, the clock is stopped 
with the hands pointing at 5 o'clock. 

The special function is the ease with 
wliicli the time spent on any job can be 
figured. Railway and Locomotive Engi- 
neering says: 

-'Under the time-keeping system employed 
the men are instructed to enter on their 
time cards the number past which the 
short hand stands, and to the right of this, 
the number past which the long hand 
stands. These numbers, side by side, are 
entered on a time card when a job is be- 
gun, and immediately above them two other 
numbers are placed when the job is finished. 



For example, a job is begun at 8:15 a. m, 
'i'he time entered as sliown by the ten hour 
cloclv is 1, 2, and if the job be completed 
at 3:45 p. m. the time as shown by the 
clock is 8, 0. The difference between these 
is 6, 8 or 6 ■ hours and eight-tenths, or 6.8 
hours. This time paid for at 2m> cents per 
hour, gives the simple operation in multi- 
plication 6.8x.275==$1.87. 

"The clock can be used as it stands for 
any length of hours or length of shifts. It 
is possible to arrange the starting and stop- 
ping mechanism of the clock so that the 
act of blowing whistle will start and stop 
the clock. The use of this device simplifies 
the time-keeper's work and eliminates much 
of the liability to error which exists with 
methods usually employed." 



HOW MEXICANS PROSPECT FOR WATER. 



In the semi-arid regions of northern Mexi- 
co and the southwestern part of the United 
States the hunt for water is carried on with 
great perseverence and varjang success, says 
Modern Mexico. Tlie "vaqueros" and "pas- 
tores" (cowboys and shepherds) of Sonora, 
Chihuahua and Coahuila have certain tests 
which they claim are even more certain than 
the witch hazel switch of the water witch. 
The following are some of them: Where it 
is suspected that water maj' be found in a 
well of reasonable depth, extend a sheep's 
pelt with the wool up. In the middle place 
a fresh egg. Cover by an earthen jar glazed 
inside when the earth is perfectly dry and 
the day warm, clear and without wind. At 
sunrise, on the next day, lift the jar, and 
if the egg and the wool near it are covered 
with dew, water will be found at a slight 
depth. If the egg is dry and the avooI damp, 
water will be found at a greater depth, 
but if there is no dew either on the egg or 
the wool there is no water to be found in 
that vicinity. Another receipt is: Grind 
60 grains of quicklime and mix it with an 
equal quantity of paris green and sulphur. 
Put the mixture in a new jar with twenty 
grams of unwashed wool. The mouth of the 
jar should be sealed with an earthenware 
stopper of the same material as the jar it- 
self. Then weigh it, and when the atmo- 
sphere is perfectly dry bury it about eight 
inches below the surface of the ground and 
cover it up, beating down the earth. Dig up 
the jar 24 hours afterwards and weigh it. 
If the weight has increased in the meantime 
water may be found by digging, but if it 
weighs less there is no water in the vicinity. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BlO 

WKere "Warring^ Nations Meet on Neutral Ground 




Wtkeve Russian and Japanese Officers Meet Daily and Salute. 



Not far from Xewcliwang and yet located 
on the neutral ground of Northern China is 
a station where Russian and Japanese offi- 
cers meet daily and salute each other with 
cold, contemptuous civility. The place, 
known as Shan-hai-kwan, is one of the rail- 
way stations where everj' nation keeps a 
force large enough to guard its interests and 
this atmosphere of internationalism is 
enough to hold the bitterest foes subdued. 
Chinese military police, creatures who 



resemble withered hags, keei) order in the 
place. In the illustration the Chinese wall 
is sliown in the distance on the mountain. 
In Shan-hai-kwan the Japanese and Rus- 
sian railway officials try to outdo each other 
in the thoroughness with which they do 
their work, look after baggage, travelers, 
etc. The situation is most unique, for 
doubtless a murderous hate lurks in the 
hearts of natives of the opposed nations as 
they meet day after day. 



CHICAGO'S WATER WASTE IS 4,000,000- 
000 GALLONS ANNUALLY. 



Recent investigation has revealed the fact 
that Chicago loses $390,000 annually in 
water waste! This means that a great per- 
cent of the "pumped" water slips back into 
Lake Michigan and never reaches the water 
mains of Chicago. 

Engineers declare that all pumping sta- 
tions lose about three per cent of the total 
amount which is assumed to be pumped, but 
by the figures recently given out Chicago 



is burning tons upon tons of coal uselessly 
and her citizens are not enjoying the water 
supply they should have. 

To leaking pistons in the pumping engines 
is ascribed this annual 4,000,000,000-gallon 
loss of water. In one station the propor- 
tion lost was 10 per cent; at this ratio in 
all the stations it would amount to 13,000,- 
000,000 gallons yearly, but it is not believed 
to be so great at other stations. 

The pitometers used to detect the amount 
of waste are rarely accurate, city engineers 
say, and any figures gained in this way 
cannot be depended upon. 



320 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



POUNDING THE SOLID CHOKE. 

How the New Boy in the Flour Mill is 
Initiated 



Every trade has its time-honored jokes 
which, year after year, are played upon the 
ever new crop of beginners. This one is a 
flour mill story contributed to the American 
Miller: 

Being behind on orders we ran 15 liours, 
then 18. Orders continued to come until 
we were compelled to run day and night. 




"Pound Her, BiU." 

This caused the writer to begin his day at 
noon and end it at midnight, when his sec- 
ond would relieve him. 

The best help is generally given the sec- 
ond, while the head miller must get along 
with any old thing. Following this rule 
the sweepei", who for the present I will call 
Bill, was assigned to me as oiler and 
sweeper. Now Bill—, but I will not try to 
describe him beyond saying tliat he was a 
wild and woolly sort of fellow; a big duffer, 
but harmless. 

One night about 10 o'clock I was going 
over the mill examining the stock as usual. 
This time Bill went with me. It seemed 
strange to him that I must look into almost 



every spout. We were in the basement. 
Bill thought I was looking for a choke-up 
and wanted to assist me by telling me 
where it was. 

"Never mind, Bill, I'll find it," said I, 
"and when I do it will be a bad one." 

Going up to the next floor I shouted: 
"Come, Bill! Come on, quick!" 

Well, Bill did not see the stair steps at 
all. He grabbed the mallet, on the run. 

"Here it is," I said; "pound this spout 
till I tell you to quit. It's choked solid." 

I went up to the next floor and stopped. 
Well, I laughed until I almost went straight 
up. I went back to see how Bill was get- 
ting along. "Pound her. Bill. She's solid," 
I said. 

I stepped into the dark, where the rest 
of the boys were standing watching Bill 
pound the 4x4 brace till he wore out one 
mallet. He sailed up to the next floor after 
another mallet and pounded the 4x4 until I 
went to him and said: "All right, Bill, she's 
0. K. Come now, let us go down to the 
boiler room and talk about the choke." 

Laugh? Well,* I guess yes. I laughed 
more that night than ever since. Bill did 
not know till tlie next day that the spout 
was really solid. There is a bruised spot 
on that 4x4 yet. 



NO PLUSH CAR SEATS IN KENTUCKY. 



It has remained for the Kentucky state 
board of health to take the first step against 
the use of plush car seats which collect and 
hold disease germs until the next passenger 
comes along to receive them into Iiis sys- 
tem. The board will indict every railway 
oflicial in the state whom it can reach who 
is responsible for the use of seats uphol- 
stered with heavy plush. 

Leather or cane for both sleepers and day 
coaches are the substitutes the board will 
permit, and of the two, cane is preferable, 
for the leather seats are hot and uncom- 
fortable. Linen malves a good seat cover- 
ing, as it can be I'emoved and laundered 
frequently. The effects of this initiative 
move may extend to other states until all 
our railway systems will have sanitary car 
seats. 

♦ » ♦■ 

An important step toward uniting the ice- 
bound country of Alaska with the outer 
world has lately been completed: the new 
government cable connecting that territory 
with American lines having been spliced 
by the cable ship "Burnside" in Puget Sound. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

HigH Bridge at St. Paul Wrecked 



321 




"It Reaches a Hei^Ht of 200 Feet." 



The terrific cyclone which swept down the 
Mississippi valley in Sept., 1904, and did 
more than a million dollars' damage in the 
Twin Cities numbered among its playthings 
the huge structure known throughout the 
Northwest as the High Bridge. This bridge 
which spans the Mississippi at St. Paul is 
famous for the same thing that high bridges 
throughout the world are noted for— a jump- 
ing-off place. 

The bridge which has a total length of 
2,770 feet starts from the west bank of the 
river at an elevation of 90 feet above low 
water and ascends with a grade of 4 per 
cent until on the opposite shore it reaches a 
height of 200 feet. It has a 24-foot roadway 
and two 8-foot sidewalks and was built in 
1889 at a cost of $479,878. The cyclone 
carried away two 60-foot plate girder spans, 
one 170-foot span, a trestle tower carrying 
a 50-foot span, and one 250-foot span. Iron 



was twisted in all shapes and 2-inch bolts 
were broken. Altogether 500 tons of iron 
fell, 267 tons lodging in the river. 

The wreckage is being cleared away and 
the bridge will be reconstructed. L. W. 
Rundlett, Commissioner of Public Works, St. 
Paul, kindly furnished us with the photo- 
graph of the bridge and the facts. 



CITY WATER WORKS RUN BY ALCOHOL 
MOTOR. 



At Matanzas, a Cuban city of 40,000 in- 
habitants, the city water works are run by 
an alcohol motor pump of German manu- 
facture, reports U. S. Minister Squiers at 
Habana, Cuba. The installation cost $6,000, 
and the 45-horsepower motor pump is ope- 
rated at a fuel cost of $4 per 10-hour day 
and pumps 1,000,000 gallons of water. 



322 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



OUTWITTING SATAN 



Many of us might have reason to be 
thankful could we rid ourselves of the at- 
tentions of His Satanic Majesty so easily 




Kid of the Devil for Another Year. 

as do the peasants of Val di Rose. These 
superstitious people are troubled by the 
arch-fiend but once a year, and that occa- 
sion is always followed by great merrj'- 
making and rejoicing. 

Every year on the first day of August all 
the people of Val di Rose gather in a great 
square, which is the public threshing floor, 
also. The ludicrous ceremony which then 
occurs is presided over by the most intel- 
lectual man in the community. "With a sol- 
emnity, such as graces all acts of mighty 



import, this man attaches a very realistic 
puppet representing the devil to a small fire 
balloon, which he then liberates. And all 
the people rejoice, for they believe tuat 
their dreams will be peaceful and their 
vintage uninjured for another year. 

♦ « » 

RAIN-PROOF HATS. 



Rrain-proof hats, which can be worn in 
the lieaviest downpour and yet retain all 
their delicate tintings, exquisite style and 
original shapes unimpaired, is the latest 
Parisian fad. The hats are made of celluloid 
especially prepared for the purpose so that 
it can be woven into imitations of the 
finest straw. It is also modeled into flowers 
for trimming tlie hats. The hats are beauti- 
ful, for the celluloid is susceptible to the 
most delicate tints. So long as the hats are 
a fad they will meet with feminine favor, 
but after that they will spoil the necessi- 
ties for new bonnets too often to suit most 
women. 

<♦ * » 

FISH LADDERS FOR MINNESOTA DAMS. 



The Fish Commissioners of Minnesota 
have ordered fish ladders placed on every 
dam in the state. These ladders must be 
three feet in length for each foot of height. 

The crib or bulkhead is constructed of 
oak, using 6x6 material land the corners 
being mitred and bolted. It is filled with 
rock for anchorage. The top of the crib 
stands out of the water about a foot higher 
than the main chute, which extends from 
the crib to the water below the dam. 

The chute is constructed of 2-incli mate- 
rial. It extends to within two feet of the 
bottom of the river and into the pool be- 
low the dam. It is placed in the channel 
of the stream, and when the greatest depth 
of water is found the clmte is supported 
from the bottom of the stream by '"horses" 
or similar supports. 




Fiah Ladder Adopted in Minnesota. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 323 

£i:i§»lai:id Suffers From tHe Cotton Famine 



England's greatest industry is tlie cotton 
industry and in certain localities whole 
towns are given up to the huge mills where 
every man, woman and child earns its 
daily bread, often whole families being em- 



the employes form an unpieasing contrast 
to those found in our own busy factories. 
Where our laborers are bright with interest 
and many tokens of active intellect, these 
have dull, heavy countenances which seem 




Tsrpical Scene in £n£flisH Cotton Mill. 



ployed. The world's cotton output has not 
kept pace with its population and now 
there is a shortage of cotton and the poor 
people of Lancashire ai'e working short 
hours, barely earning enough to sustain 
life. The short time, however, was neces- 
sary to keep the price of cotton from ris- 
ing and thus bringing on a greater evil, 
financial panic. The crisis is said to be the 
severest since the cotton famine during the 
Civil War in this country. 

England hopes, by furthering in every 
way possible, the cultivation of cotton in 
her African colonies to be able to meet 
such conditions in the future. How much 
the welfare of her people depend upon it 
is apparent at a glance into one of her busy 
cotton mills, teeming with life and labor. 
The winding frames with their innumer- 
able spindles and bobbins of fleecy cotton 
and the never ceasing whirr of the wind- 
ing is especially interesting. The faces of 



as though they could look no farther than 
each dav's grinding round in the cotton mill. 



AMERICANS DRINK 910,000,000 GLASSES 
OF SODA WATER. 



The soda water season is closing. A 
simple statement, but few know all that it 
means, or how great a commercial feature 
the soda water season is. In the United 
States alone, says the Soda Fountain, 75,000 
merchants sell soda water, averaging sales 
ol $730 a year, or a total of $54,750,000 per 
annum. The average price of drinks is six 
cents, giving the number of drinks as 910,- 
000,000. Could the glasses required to serve 
this many drinks be placed side by side 
they would reach to within a day's travel 
of once around the world. These figures 
do not include pop, ginger ale, root beer, 
etc., but only sales made at the fountain. 



324 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 

THe Street Paving' Problem 



[Extracted from the Report of John W. Alvord, Chicago.] 



At the beginning of the 20tb century 24,- 
000,000 of the population of the United 
States living in cities of 8,000 and over had 
invested approximately $850,000,000 in im- 
proving their streets with curbing, paving, 
grading, and sidewalks. Each year a further 
improvement of over seventy million four 
hundred fifty thousand dollars for such im- 
provements and their care and renewal is 
made, and the amount is constantly increas- 
ing. 

But one other class of engineering works 
exceeds this in magnitude, that of the steam 
railway system of the United States. 

One would suppose that this vast output 
of human energy would be the occasion of 
the most critical investigation and scientific 
research, but it is safe to say that in no 
other branch of civil engineering is there 
expended so large an amount of money in 
so unsystematic a manner, and generally 
with such unsatisfactory results. 



iron that enters into their composition. They 
can tell you to several places of decimals 
the cost of moving a ton-mile of freight and 
the transportation of a passenger. 

In France, where road- 
building is a science, the 
practice during the last twen- 
ty-five years has tended more 
and more to lessen the first 
cost of the national roads by 
decreasing the thickness of 
foundations and increasing 
the annual expenditure for 
maintenance. There are over 
$24,000,000 expended annually 
on 22,000 miles of national 
roads in France, equal to an 




ASPHALT 
lOO 



BRICK. 
lOO 



RECTANGULAR 

WOODBLOCK. 

lOO 



GRANITE 

BLOCK. 

ISO 



BELGIAN 

BLOCK. 

160 



COBBLESTONE 
400 



Showing Relative Amounts of Labor Necessary to Clean Various Pavements 



Pavements are primarily designed to ac- 
commodate travel, but scarcely any one in 
this country thinks of investigating the 
travel of a city systematically and thor- 
oughly before proceeding to lay down pave- 
ments. 

Pavements have been a necessity of civil- 
ization since Rome was mistress of the 
world, but cities are still experimenting 
with the subject without general and well- 
defined policies. Community after com- 
munity repeats the fundamental experi- 
ments, and copies without reflection or 
study what they see being done elsewhere. 

The railways of the country know to a 
penny the cost in life service arid the com- 
parative utility of every bolt and r^crap of 



average of $225.00 per mile per annum for 
repairs aloire on country roads. 

A report from 135 American cities from 
1890 to 1901 show that of new pavements 
the following percentages were laid: 

Asphalt 33 per cent 

Brick 25 per cent 

Macadam 23 per cent 

Granite 8 per cent 

Wood 7 per cent 

Miscellaneons 4 per cent 

Residence streets should not be paved 
wider than 18 feet, which allows three vehi- 
cles to stand side by side, and turning points 
can be established in the middle of long 
blocks, if necessary. The tonnage of the 
traffic in some of the business portions or 
Chicago rises to 15,000 tons per day, and is 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



325 



accommodated in some places on a 30-foot 
roadway, but there is hardly a residence 
street in which the traffic exceeds ten tons 
in this same time, and yet with this tre- 
mendous difference in traffic, we find but 
little allowance for difference of width. 

Asphalt itself is a variable material, the 
only reliable test of which is its action in 
the pavement. Such pavements have fre- 
quenty failed, but it is to be remembered 
that the industrj' is new and has been rapid- 
ly developed in less than thirty years to 
the point where there are now about 2,000 
miles of street, representing an investment 
of over $100,000,000, in this country alone. 
The wearing surface of asphalt pavement is 
composed of ninety pe- cent of sand or 
mineral matter, the . .phalt being the 
cement that binds it into a tenacious and 
elastic coating. If, for any reason, such as 
improper preparation, age, or volatilization, 
the cementing quality of the asphalt disap- 
pears, the pavement disintegrates, cracks, 
and is rapidly worn or broken down. The 
general tendency of asphalt pavement to 
decay will be indicated b.v its loss Of elastic- 
ity, during sudden changes of temperature, 
cracks forming during cold weather, and 
particularly during extreme drops in the 
temr)eratuve. 



THE AUTO TELEGRAPH CAR. 



The United States government has de- 
cided to make a practical trial of the use- 
fulness of the automobile in modern war- 
fare and to that end has just had con- 
structed for the United States Signal Corps 
a high power motor vehicle known as an 
auto telegraph car and which is the only 
machine of its kind in the world. In this 
age the chief function of the Signal Corps 
is to erect military telegraph and telephone 
lines in order to keep communication open 
between forts or other headquarters and the 
forces in the field and it is in this service 



^B 


^HRHSI^^^^T?r7^^^P^' ^^.^i^'Meik'^ '-■-'■ ^^^^^^^1 


■ 


I 


^^^iHI 


fif^i 


i| -*'^^ 


1 


fe""'" ^--^j:! 


'7J; 


|P^^:----i.:..:--'"^, """■'" 






"Only Machine of Its Kind in the World." 

that the new auto car will be used. It is 
designed not only to facilitate the rapid 
erection of telegraph lines, but is also 
equipped for use as a field telegraph station. 
The automobile itself is very similar to 
a heavy touring . car of the Winton type 
^\-ith the exception that the ordinary style 
of tonneau has been replaced by a special 
tonneau with seats along the sides, the occu- 
pants of which face each other, and having 
ample storage space for instruments, and 
other equipment. At the sides are racks 
on which are carried lances or light poles 
for use in erecting a temporary overhead 
telephone or telegraph line when other sup- 
ports are not available. The "flying tele- 
graph office" is equipped with all the latest 
modern improvements, including "sounders," 
which make it possible to receive and trans- 
mit messages amid the din of battle. The 
regular automobile detachment comprises 
eight soldiers, six of which act as an armed 
guard for the operators. 



Comparative Loads cue Horse Can Draw on Different 
Roadways. 



:\Iechanical training is putting the Jap- 
anese well to the front; they have learned 
liow to shoot with big guns. 



326 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



JAPANESE MINES THE TERROR OF RUS- 
SIAN FLEETS. 



TJhe Japanese have been very daring in 
the matter of laying mines. Ofttimes they 
have watched their opportunities and done 
tlieir work under the very noses of the 
Russian fleet at Port Arthur. 



vessels "Gromoboi" and "Rossio." The five 
months' service, declare the French, had 
lowered the 22-knot speed of the Japanese 
vessels to 16 knots. An investigation re- 
veals, however, that the Japanese vessels 
had cylindrical boilers while th« Russian 
vessels were equipped with watertubes in 
perfect condition. 




Japanese Torpedo-Boat SeatroyerB Laying Mines Outside Fort Arthur. 



One feature of this worlv was a most 
deadly explosive invented by one of their 
engineers. The inventor kept the nature^ 
of the explosive a profound secret, but 
while superintending the placing of a mine 
it exploded, and he was killed and the secret 
of his invention was lost with him, much to 
the regret of the Japanese. 



SPEED IN WARSHIPS. 



Is it worth while to sacrifice any naval 
qualities in warships for the sake of speed? 
This is the question that has been agitating 
the minds of French naval tacticians, says 
the Engineer of London, and one faction de- 
clares that the consideration of speed is 
secondary, citing the manner in which the 
"Gloire" class have all beaten the "Jeanne 
d'Arc" (two knots swifter) on trial and 
how the Japanese vessels "Tokiwa" and 
"Asama" failed to catch the slower Ru.sssian 



The English paper in refuting the stand 
taken against speed as an important ele- 
ment, declares: "The swifter ship always 
has the option of battle, and that means 
much, if not everything in modern war- 
fare. The swift warship or fleet cannot, 
of course, be in two places at once, but it 
can certainly compel the enemy to have 
ships in two or three different places at 
once to waylay it. In fine, it is tolerably 
certain to compel the enemy to divide, and 
thus take risks of annihilation in detail. 

"Difficulties there are, and must ever be. 
Mostly they are inherent in warships. For 
instance, the ocean liner is designed to run 
at a high speed regularly, rarely cruising at 
a low rate, whereas the warship usually 
goes slowly, but must be able to spurt her 
hardest at very short notice. From this 
cause troubles may arise now and again, 
but the navy whose ships can race on occa- 
sion is the navy that must rule the sea." 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 327 

Brilliant Scenes at an £^n^lisK YacHtin^ Festival 




"THe Scene at Ni^Ht "Viras One 

The annual yachting festival held at 
Cowes, Isle of Wight, during August, was a 
most brilliant affair. The king and queen 
graced the occasion and the weather was 
beautiful, a combination of affairs calcu- 
lated to rejoice the average Englishman's 
heart. 

Among the yachts which entered the 
races the German emperor's "Meteor" was 
very conspicuous because of the poor show- 
ing it made and the "Ingomar," owned by 



of Beauty Beyond Description.** 

an American, Mr. Moi'gan Plant, was of in- 
terest because of the splendid speed made 
in the race for big yachts in which it won 
first prize. Most of the first prizes were 
taken by Englishmen. 

The scene at night was one of beauty be- 
yond description. Eacli yacht was bril- 
liantly illuminated with myriads of incan- 
descent lights, which the clear waters 
doubled and tripled, and the fireworks dis- 
plays intensified the effect. 



TO REMEDY ELECTROLYSIS IN ST. PAUL. 



The escaping electric current from the 
rails of the street ear lines in St. Paul has 
been attacking the underground water and 
gas mains for some years. The city author- 
ities have insisted that some remedy be pro- 
vided. The railway company have decided 



to lay copper wires between the double 
tracks, and lead these wires back to the 
power station. By frequent connection of 
these wires to the rails it is expected the 
escape of stray currents into the earth will 
be prevented. The cost of the wire and 
labor of installing will be $23,000. Work 
will commence at once. 



328 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CONTROLLER ON A TROLLEY CAR. 



The "Throttle" by Which the Motorman Turns 
on the Power 



The popular idea of the controller of the 
electric car seems to be that it is an iron 
box containing a good deal of delicate 
mechanism which, in s'ome incomprehensi- 
ble manner, performs certain complicated 
functions, says the Electrical Review. 
Many, no doubt, think that the controller 
cover conceals electromagnets, gear wheels, 
rods, wires and other devices, all in immi- 
nent danger of flying to pieces when any- 
thing goes wrong. This is not true, for 
although the action of the controller may 
seem complicated to one Avho has not made 
a study of such devices, the mechanism 
of the controller is exceedingly simple. 
When anything happens to the controller, 
it is the controller itself which suffers. It 
is true tliat sometimes the motorman's 
clothing may be damaged under such cir- 
cumstances by hot metal, but the passen- 
gers themselves, if they are where they 
belong, are in no danger. Every one ap- 
preciates the startling character of a bril- 
liant electric arc suddenly appearing when 
and where least expected, but the electric 
arc is not dangerous to those who remain 
at a respectful distance. 

The electric controller used on a street 
car may be compared with a water faucet, 
though, of course, the analogy must not be 
pushed too hard. Its function is to regu- 
late the supply of current both in amount 
and in the way it flows through the car 
motors. It allows the current to flow first 
through a single path, and, by steps, re- 
duces the opposition to this flow, thus al- 
lowing the current to increase. It then 
supplies two paths, as though two faucets 
were opened, and again by steps allows the 
current to increase through each of these 
paths. 

For convenience in manipulation, all 
electrical connections, except such as are 
permanent, are made by the controller. Ex- 
ception is made in the cases of the fuse 
and circuit-breaker, which are safety de- 
vices, and, for this reason, are separated 
from the controller and are isolated. The 
function of these two is to open the con- 
ducting circuit when the current flowing 
through the car is too great. Other than 
this they have no effect on the motors. An 
electric motor consists of two parts, each 



of which contains a winding of copper 
Avire. The rotating part is called the arma- 
ture, and the fixed part, the field. From 
each end of these two windings wires are 
carried to each of the car's controllers. 
Since there are two motors, there will thus 
be eight wires carried in a cable under the 
car floor and up through the platform floor 
to the controller. An additional connection 




A Controller 

may be made to the field winding, for the 
purpose of giving a greater range of speed, 
but this is not essential to the working of 
the car. Besides the car motors, there is 
under the car the so-called rheostat, a de- 
vice for preventing the flow of excessive 
currents. This device is usually divided 
into two or three sections. When all of it 
is connected in the circuit, the greatest re- 
sistance is offered to the flow of current. 
As it is cut out by the controller, the re- 
sistance it offers decreases until it is finally 
all removed. Assuming two sections of the 
rheostat, there will then be three wires 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



329 



carried from this piece of apparatus to each 
coutroller. There are two other wires, one 
by which couuection is made to the trolley, 
and the other making connection through 
the car truck to the rails. In all, this makes 
thirteen wires led into each controller. 

The function of the controller is merely 
to establish suitable electrical connections 
between these thirteen wires. When the 
controller handle is first turned, everything 
is connected, as we say, in series — that is, 
the current coming to the car from the 
trolley wire passes through the rheostat 
to the field winding of one motor, then 
through its armature, next to the field wind- 
ing of the second motor, finally passing 
through its armature to the track. The 
next two or three moves of the controller 
handle merely cut out the rheostat in steps, 
just as though a faucet handle were given 
two or three turns, opening it wider to al- 
low more water to flow. The next move- 
ment of the controller handle causes the 
current entering the ear to pass first 
through the rheostat. It then has two 
paths by which it may reach the track — 
one through each motor. Further move- 
ments of the controller handle cut out the 
rheostat as before, leaving the two motors 
connected directly between the trolley and 
the rail by means of the wires running 
through the controller. 

The movable part of the controller is an 
iron spindle, upon which is arranged a series 
of metallic discs insulated from the spindle. 
These discs are connected together in pairs, 
and they are partially cut awaj' at the 
periphery, so that they represent a series 
of cams. On the back of the controller are 
a number of brass blocks supported on 
springs, which press each of them in con- 
tact with its corresponding disc whenever 
the projecting portion of the latter comes 
opposite to the contact block. To each of 
these blocks one of the car wires is con- 
nected. In this way the electrical connec- 
tions just explained are made successively 
as the handle of the controller is turned. 
When the handle is at the off position, none 
of the contact blocks is touching the discs. 
There is, in addition, the reversing lever, 
which is placed in the controller box, but 
this is only operated when the regulating 
l.iandle is thrown off, and it merely makes 
the necessary change in the method of con- 
necting the motors .so that the car may be 
run in either direction. 

What happens when a controllev breaks 



down, or, as the motorman would say, 
"blows out," is either that too large a cur- 
rent has been allowed to pass through some 
of the wires' in the controller— a rare acci- 
dent which should be prevented by the fuse; 
or, in throwing the controller to the off 
position, which should break the current, 
the latter has instead jumped from' one con- 
tact block to another, or to the frame of 
the controller. This produces what is called 
a short-circuit^that is to say, a path offer- 
ing little resistance to the flow of current 
from the trolley wire to the track. This 
arc may cause more or less damage to the 
wires and metal of the controller before it 
goes out, but the damage is usually slight 
and is confined to a small spot. It is to be 
expected that the average passenger on an 
electric car is startled when something goes 
wrong, with a bright flash and a loud re- 
port, but he is learning rapidly that this 
does not signify danger, and that he is safest 
if he sits still. On the other hand, electrical 
apparatus is being improved rapidly, so that 
such accidents are becoming rare. In some 
of the latest types of controlling systems 
the main motor current does not pass 
through the controllers— in fact, it at no 
thne in its passage is above the car floor. 

^ * » 

FIREMEN TO QUALIFY AS ENGINEERS. 



Two big railway companies, the Lake 
Shore and the New York Central, have de- 
cided that in order to secure competent engi- 
neers and to weed out incapable firemen, 
they will educate their firemen in conjunc- 
tion with their daily duties to become engi- 
neers. More than that, the fireman who 
Avill not take the education will lose his 
job. 

In the first year of his service the fireman 
will receive a book of rules pertaining to 
the mechanical and fuel phases of a loco- 
motive. If he fails to make a good grade 
when examined at the end of a year he will 
be dropped from the service. The course 
covers three years and a grade of 80 per 
cent secures a diploma as a qualified engi- 
neer. The examining board, however, re- 
(juire a. grade of 100 per cent. 



The English telegraph service, which is a 
])ranch of the postal department, had a 
deficit last year of $4,500,000. This is partly 
due, however, to extensions and mainte- 
nanee of newly established lines not yet 
self-sustaining. Last year over ^i<,000,000 
messages were handled. 



330 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HOUSE-BOAT TRIP FROM CHICAGO 
ST. LOUIS. 



TO 



Editor: I send you a 

rough sketch showing a longitudinal sec- 
tion of a house-boat in which I recently 
completed a trip from Chicago to St. Louis. 
Those of your readers who live along the 
Illinois or Mississippi rivers will no doubt 
think this a crude craft of its kind, but to 
the inland boys it will convey a fair idea 
of how to build a house-boat cheaply in 
which just as much fun can be had as in 
a more pretentious craft. This boat is 24 
feet long, 6 feet wide and 10 feet high, and 
the lumber in it cost $60 in Chicago. The 
hull is built of 2x10 pine dressed, and the 
seams calked so that she never leaked a 
drop. The studding and bracing is all 2x4 



The bunks (not shown) were the or- 
dinary woven wire mattress frames, hinged 
at their inner corners to the uprights or 
studding and supported at their outer cor- 
ners by chains, the inner ends of which 
were connected to staples driven in the 
2x4's, so that during the day the bunks 
were folded back against the wall and held 
so by hooks, thus leaving the entire floor 
space of the cabin free for table and chairs. 
At night the table and chairs were folded 
and the bunks let down. 

The roof was 10-ounce canvas covered 
with three coats of good lead paint, but a 
cheaper roof could have been made with 
matched boards covered with tarred paper. 
Common mosquito netting could be substi- 
tuted for the wire netting. The hull and the 
roof are the essential features and must be 




side XSlevation of House-Boat 



except in the corners, where 4x4's were 
used. The cabin, 14 feet by 10 feet, had a 
door at each end and double windows on 
each side, the upper sash being hinged and 
the windew openings are covered with wire 
netting on the outside, the sash swinging 
inwardly and hooked up to the ceiling. At 
the stern where we had our gasoline stove, 
wire netting on hinged frames with canvas 
curtains formed a perfect protection from 
flies, mosquitoes and wind. At the bow or 
front end, where we used our oars for pro- 
pelling and guiding the boat, we had can- 
vas curtains which could be adjusted at 
any height and set at an angle like regular 
awnings. 

The hull was built deep so as to with- 
stand any waves that we might encounter 
In the river from storms or passing steam- 
ers. The floor is 18 inches below the hull 
line, and the space under the floor is used 
for storing ice and supplies; trap-door af- 
fording ready access thereto. 



tight. We used common siding for the 
sides and ends and did not line the cabin. 
An important point is to have as much 
"rake" as possible, thus causing the boat 
to ride the waves easily. 

In this boat we drifted, rowed and were 
towed through the Illinois and Michigan 
canal from Chicago to La Salle, 111., where 
we ran into the Illinois river, which we 
traversed to Grafton, III. (near Alton), 
where we struck the "Father of Waters," 
who carried us along at the rate of seven 
miles an hour to St. Louis, the entire trip 
taking just three weeks. So enamored 
have I become of house-boat life that 1 
shall build a larger craft, equip it with 
a paddle-wheel and a gasoline engine, 
launch it in Lake Michigan and use it for 
summer outings in the streams along the 
eastern shore of the lake. 

¥. B. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 331 

Realistic Target Practice in tHe German Army 




Life-sized Pictorial Cavalry Used in Target Practice in the German Army 



The German army has adopted a method 
of target practice in which a life-sized body 
of charging cavalry are fired upon by a 
force of riflemen, the cavalry advancing at 
full gallop, or the same rate as in an actual 
conflict. This novel target vras adopted in 
order to test the number of telling shots 
made by the riflemen under those con- 
ditions. 



The life-sized figures of the cavalry are 
painted upon a movable screen which is 
connected by strong ropes to an immense 
beam. These ropes pass over pulleys in 
the beam and thence along the beam, and to 
their ends is hitched a team of horses. 
These horses are set at full gallop and the 
pictorial cavalry charge toward the beam, 
while the infantry fire. 



How to Pasteurize MilK 



Milk can be successfully pasteurized in 
even a small way without the use of expen- 
sive machinery. Hoai'd's Dairyman gives 
the following directions: 

Obtain a tank large enough to hold four 
or more deep setting pails about 8 inches 
in diameter and 20 inches deep. Have water 
and drainage pipes so arranged that the tank 
can be quickly filled and emptied. Fill the 
tank with sufficient hot water so that it will 
come above the milk in the cans. Set the 
cans of milk in the hot water and turn on 
enough steam from a small boiler to heat 
the water to about 160° F. Heat the milk 
in the cans with constant stirring, as rapidly 



as possible to 140° F. and hold at that point 
for 20 minutes. 

Draw off the hot water and let a con- 
stant supply of cold water flow into the 
tank, stirring the milk in the meantime so 
that it may cool as rapidly as possible. It 
should be cooled to 50° F. or below. It will 
take some skill and experience to do the 
above successfully, as well as considerable 
work. 

It should be understood that pasteurizing 
milk does not increase the purity, but only 
kills the bacteria that are present. If clean 
milk is desired, it must be obtained by 
methods of cleanliness in the stable. 



332 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



100,000 RUSSIAN SOLDIERS WILL WEAR 
BULLET-PROOF GARMENTS. 



LIVED IN THE WATER FIFTEEN DAYS. 



The Russian government lias ordered from 
the company, established at Milan to manu- 
facture the Bendetti cuirass, 100,000 of 
these breast-plates, which are destined for 
the armies in Manchuria. Last winter the 
inventor carried out some tests at St. Peters- 
burg before the czar and high military 
officials, and it is claimed that the plate is 
proof against all small-arm projectiles. The 
cuirass to be supplied the Russian soldiers 
is flexible, weighs only 17 ounces, is 
less than half an inch in thickness, and 
eiitirelj^ covers the chest and abdomen of 
the wearer. The United Service Gazette 
says: "The breast-plates were to be deliv- 
ered at the Russian consulate at Milan on 
August 15, the sum to be paid for them be- 
ing slightly in excess of half a million 
roubles. The factory in Milan employs 250 
y>'orkmen, and the process is kept a pro- 
found secret." 



HOW TO BUILD A RAT-PROOF CORN CRIB. 

A corn crib which is cheaply and easily 
constructed is shown in the illustration 
herewith. The main feature of the crib is 
that it is rat-proof. It is constructed of 
inch lumber; open for air to reach the corn 
and with flaring sides for protection against 
rain. 

The crib is set on either wooden posts or 
brick foundations, says the Indiana Farmer. 
The posts are set into the ground 15 inches 
and extend two feet above it, where the 
crib sills rest upon them. About 16 inches 




Bats Cannot Climb These Posts. 

above the ground are fastened galvanized 
iron hoods, projecting out and downward 
around the foundation posts 4 inches in 
width. Rats could not possibly climb past 
these. It is quite practicable to shape the 
hoods out of pieces of tin and nail them to 
the posts instead of buying the iron hoods. 



A life suit in which the wearer can lie 
down or stand up with equal ease while in 
the water, is a valuable invention lately 
given to the world by M. Joseph Probst, a 
Swiss inventor at Geneva. 

The suit is made of India rubber. It 
opens in the center and can be quickly and 
easily donned by the most excitable person. 




M. Joseph Probst in His Wonderful Life Suit. 

When attired in it the wearer is absolutely 
safe while in the water and it is possible 
for him to exist there several days. Air- 
tight compartments arranged on the outside, 
carry the necessary supplies for a prolonged 
stay in the water, and the apparatus in- 
cludes an instrument for scaring away dan- 
gerous fish, says the American Inventor. 
Nearly one-half of the suit is above water 
at all times. As a test of his invention Mr. 
Probst remained in Lake Geneva 15 days 
and nights. 

♦ * » 

AUSTRALIANS PAY POSTAGE INTO SLOT 
MACHINES. 



A new postal convenience is in use in 
Australia which would be highly appre- 
ciated in this country. It is a slot machine, 
in which, if no stamp can be procure;?, the 
letter and the penny postage are depositee 
the words "one penny paid" being stamped 
on the envelope when the box is opened by 
the postoffice authorities. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



333 



LARGEST WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY STA- 
TION COMPLETED. 



The largest wireless telegraphy station in 
the world was completed iu September at 
Pisa, Italy. The buildings are entirely of 
stone. The machinery and apparatus are 
being placed as rapidly as possible and by 
the lirst of 1905 the station will be ready for 
receiving and transmitting messages. Wire- 
less telegraphic communication will be es- 
tablished with England, Holland, the United 
States and Canada and with vessels in the 
Mediterranean, the Red sea, the Baltic sea 
and the Atlantic and Indian oceans. On 
the coast of Montenegro two Marconi sta- 
tions are in complete working order and are 
used daily. 

» « » 

SOME PHOTOGRAPHIC CONTRASTS. 



Never take a view with the sun directly 
behind you, says a correspondent of the 
Photographic News, and reference to Figs. 
1 and 2 herewith given will show the worth 




FiK. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



Of the advice. Fig. 1 shows the result with 
the sun behind the photographer; the shape 
of the objects, shadows, and even perspec- 
tive are lost. Fig. 2 shows the effect with 
the light coming from the side, and how 
great an improvement! 

Another error 
to be guarded 
against is lack 
of foreground. 
Note the con- 
trast between 
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. 
In the former 
the object has 
been to get as 
much of the 
tree as possible, 
and cousequent- 
1 y foreground 
has been sacri- 
ficed, and the 
tree looks as 
though it were 
anchored in the 
air, rather than ^g_ s. 



firmly rooted in the earth. In Fig. 4 
the top of the tree has been sacrificed to 
gain more foreground and the top-heavy 
and unsymmeti-ical effect thus eliminated. 

♦ « » 

HOW TO MAKE REVERSED PRINTS DI- 
RECT FROM THE NEGATIVE. 



A straight print from a reversed negative 
may be uiade after the following method 
with as good results as if made in the reg- 
ular way: 

Fix an ordinary lens, the one used in 
making the negative will do, in the end of 
a packing box and lay the printing frame in 
the other end of the box with the glass side 
of the negative next to the paper inside that 
end. The lens end of the box should be 
turned to the sky or the light. 

The rays of light must be so nearly par- 
allel that they will print through the glass 
without perceptible blur, and the disc of 
light made by the lens should completely 
surround the frame.. The larger the disc 
the longer should be the exposure. 

♦ « » 

HOW TO MAKE HECTOGRAPH SHEETS. 




Some people prefer hectograph sheets to 
the regular tablet, because the sheets are 
made on blotting paper and clean by stand- 
ing, whereas the gelatinous tablet must be 
washed off when through using it or it will 
not make a clear print next time. 

To make hectograph sheets soak 4 parts 
of glue in 5 parts of water and 3 parts of 
ammonia until it is soft. Heat it and add 
3 parts of sugar and 8 parts of glycerine. 
Apply the mixture to blotting paper, satur- 
ating the paper 
and adding suc- 
cessive coats 
until one side 
has a smooth 
surface. Use 
the smooth side 
for reproducing 
the writing just 
as the tablet is 
used, excepting 
sponging them 
off. 

Any number 
of these hecto- 
graph sheets 
may be made 
at a time anc 
kept for futur« 
Fig. 4. use. 



334 



ENCYCT. OPEDIA 



AN IMPROVED FILLER FOR THE LUBRI- 
CATING SYSTEM. 



TREATMENT FOR BURNS AND SCALDS. 



Engineers and oilers wIjo are not so fortvi- 
nate as to liave a '-piped-up" oiling system 
on their engines and macliines, will find tlie 
following a handy addition to their fillers: 




fig.1 

Bend a piece of No. 8 iron wire (No. 6 
copper wire is better) into a ring or collar 
(Fig. 2), just large enough to slip over the 
spout of the filler. Put this on the spout 
about Vi in. from the end as shown in Fig. 1, 
and solder in place securely. This ring pre- 
vents the spout slipping too far into the hole 
in the cup.— Contributed by Lee Boyer, Ok- 
mulgee, I. T. 

♦ » » 

TANK FOR CATCHING CONDENSED 
WATER. 



For providing water for washing hands, 
face, etc., in the plant the following ar- 
rangement was tried by a correspondent of 
the Engineer's Review and was found most 
useful. 

A tee was put in a live steam pump and 




Condensed Water for Washing 

a pipe connected from the tee to the top of 
an 8-in. capped pipe 4 ft. high. This tank 
is kept full of the condensed hot water all 
the time. The water is run to the sink by 
means of a pipe connected at the bottom 
of the tank. 



To draw the pain from a burn, exclude the 
air and cause it to heal rapidly, apply a good 
coat of a mixture of linseed oil and air 
slaked lime. Let this remain on until it 
wears off. 

An excellent treatment for scalds is to 
bathe or immerse the injured parts in boil- 
ing grain alcohol, whicli will take the pain 
out, and then apply a liealing salve, or treat 
as a bad wovmd. These treatments are so 
simple and relieve tlie pain so quickly that 
they rank with the best.— Contributed by 
R. E. Blondell, Pasadena, Cal. 



SAFE RAIL GRIP FOR WRECKING CREWS. 



A new and simple rail grip now used by 
the wreclving crew at Sayre, Pa., on the 
L. V. R. R. was designed by one of our read- 
ers, D. H. Utter, foreman of the cab shop at 
Sayre. 

The grip, whicii is very simple in con- 
struction, is 8 in. wide and 12 in. high and 





Front ViEV/ 



Side View 



composed of three pieces of forged iron. 
Section A is placed under the rail, and sec- 
tions B and C are placed one on each side 
of the rail, entering section A and closed 
together at the top. The grip can be adjust- 
ed to the rail in one-half minute and makes 
a secvu-e hitch that will not slip. 
♦ • ♦ 

HOW TO PRODUCE FLEMISH OAK. 



Dissolve in one gallon of water, one-half 
pound of bichromate of potash and coat the 
Avoodwork with the solution. When it is 
dry sandpaper it down smooth and give a 
coat of the best drop black ground in japan, 
thinned with turpentine. Let it stand for 
five minutes, says the Master Painter, then 
wipe off clean, coat with pure grain shellac 
and sandpaper with fine sandpaper. Apply 
a coat of beeswax in xiroportions of one 
pound to the gallon of turpentine and having 
four ounces drop black mixed in the wax. 
Use cheese cloth to wipe off clean. 



E N Y f ' L O P E T A 



335 



STEAMER SAILS ON LOFTY MOUNTAINS. 



Built in England and Carried Up the Andes. 



Not since the ark landed on Mt. Ararat 
has, in all probability, any large vessel as- 
pired to so lofty a home as the steamer 
"Inoa." Built in Hull, England, she sailed 
under her own steam to Mollendo, South 
America; was then taken to pieces and car- 
ried up the Andes to finish her career on 
Lake Titicaca, Peru, over 12,000 feet above 
the ocean. 



12,000 ft. in the distance traversed. The 
"Inca" is well named, as Lake Titicaca lies 
within the boundaries of the land said to 
have been the cradle of the old Inca races. 



PLAN TO SAVE SHADE TREES WHEN 
RUNNING WIRES. 



Frequently when putting up a pole line 
for telephone or electric light wires along 
the side of a street, the workmen utterly 
destroy the beauty of shade trees by cut- 
ting away lai'ge branches. Even with this 




'TKe 'Inca* "Was Carried Up tHe Ancles to Lrake Titicaca. 



The dimensions of the "Irica" are 220 ft. 
by 30 ft. by 14 ft. She is propelled with 
twin-screw engines of 1,000 h.p., and has a 
speed of 12 knots. , She is fitted with good 
accommodations for 24 passengers, will carry 
550 tons d. w.^ and has good arrangements 
and facilities for working cargo. Before be- 
ing taken apart for shipment, she was 
equipped for service in every particular. A 
portion of a joiner's shop was prepared to 
represent a ship's deck and here were built 
up the saloons, staterooms, pantries, etc. 
Even the upholstery, curtains, rods and din- 
ing tables were furnished. A system of 
steam heating was installed and on the 
cabin sides were marked such details as 
leads of wires for electric lights, positions of 
switches, etc; the auxiliary machinery, fans 
for forced draught with pipes and connec- 
tions, were all fitted up on the ship. 

Everything complete, the "Inca" was then 
taken to pieces and packed in over 3,000 
separate packages, each carefully marked so 
there would be no mistake in re-erecting the 
vessel, and bearing other marks for ship- 
ment purposes. The vessel was conveyed 
150 miles by rail, the railway running along 
the mountain side and across the valleys of 
the AE^es, and rising to an altitude of 



defacement there is apt to be frequent in- 
terference with the wires when the wind 
blows, or during a severe storm. At all 
times the wires are liable to cut into large 
linibs or tree trunks. 

A remedy is suggested in placing a pole 
on each side of the street and suspending 
an ordinary cross arm from a strong wire 
extendiiig from pole to pole. When the 




Dees Not Injure SHade Trees 



trees have been passed the line wires can 
be turned to the ordinai-y single pole placed 
near the curb. — Contributed by W. E. Mc- 
Chesney, Berkeley, Cal. 



The Chinese government has entered upon 
the granting of letters patent, the first hav- 
ing just been granted. It is to protect an 
electric lamp, called "bright moonlight." 
and which its inventor claims is far supe- 
rior to glow lamps of foreign manufacture 
nitherto used in the Empire. 



336 



E N C Y C L O P E J ) 1 A 



EMERGENCY WHEEL FOR AUTOS. 



A tire luaiuifaoturer in South Wales has 
devised an emergency wheel which can be 
applied in a few minutes. The Motor News, 
Dublin, says: 




As Carried oi) the Car. 




Attached to the Car 

"The wheel is merely a rim on which a 
tire is kept always inflated. It is fitted with 
three metal clamps ai-ranged to grip the 
periphery and spokes of the wheel it Is 



to be attached to, and is held locked by 
two simple thumb screws. It is easily car- 
ried on the step of the car, and in that 
position is in no sense an encumbrance." 



TEST MOTOR CARS FOR SUBURBAN 
SERVICE. 



Motor cars will not be used yet awhile 
on the Burlington railroad for handling Chi- 
cago suburban traffic and on branch lines. 
A short, time ago operating officials of that 
road tested a gasoline electric motor car in 
a trial run from Aurora to Chicago and re- 
turn. The motor was of 225 horsepower 
operated by electricity generated by a gaso- 
line engine and drew two trailers making at 
times a speed of 30 miles an hour. The 
speed is sufficiently high for the service re- 
quired, but the motor did not work alto- 
gether satisfactorily and considerable vibra- 
tion was caused by two large fly-wheels. 
The road has not given up the idea, how- 
ever, but will endeavor to correct the faults. 



PROPOSED 



ROAD LOCOMOTIVE 
TRAIN. 



AND 



An English engineer of prominence, \yho 
is a firm believer in the advantages and 
future of the road locomotive service, offers 
a model type which is shown in the cut. 

Care has been taken to avoid the usual 
objection of the road engine, which as at 
present constructed is liable to frighten 
horses. ■ In the proposed construction the 
moving parts of the driving machinery are 
concealed, and noise reduced to a minimum. 
The train as suggested contains a passenger 
car or omnibus mounted on four wheels 
and seating 20 passengers. The rear trailer 
is for trunks, express and light freight pack- 
ages. In France traction engines of this 
class make eight miles an hour easily, over 
roads which are both rough and hilly. Such 
trains are in regular service between Lyons 
and Grenoble, a distance of 70 miles, the 
trip being made in the night— one train each 
way. 



JUL 20 1905, 



